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How to Use This Documentand, in particular, to southern areas of the province where urbanization andother developments have greatly reduced the quantity and quality of raptorhabitats. The target audience includes municipal and regional governments,land developers, naturalist groups and other non-government organizations(NGOs), and individual landowners. The document provides non-biologistswith a basic understanding of raptor conservation and the tools available tohelp maintain raptor populations and to protect, restore or enhance theirhabitats. This document will also be of interest to biologists and scientists,but it is not meant to be a comprehensive treatise on the ecology andconservation of raptors in British Columbia.The specific objectives of the document are to: Explain what raptors are, their value to society and the roles they playin ecosystems (Sections 4.1 & 4.2). Explain why it is important for local governments and thedevelopment community to participate in the shared stewardship ofthe environment and to incorporate raptor conservation measures inurban and rural land development (Sections 4.2 & 4.3) Describe the roles and responsibilities of local governments,developers, and the public in the shared stewardship of raptors andtheir habitats (Section 4.3 & 6) Describe the key conservation issues and opportunities forconservation in urban and rural areas for raptors in each region of theprovince (Section 5) Describe Best Management Practices (BMPs), applicable to allregions of British Columbia, that help maintain raptor populations inurban and rural environments and protect or restore key habitatfeatures during and after land development (Section 8). Provide monitoring strategies for MOE, local governments andNGOs to see if BMPs are being followed and to determine if they areeffective in maintaining raptor populations and habitats (Section 9) Provide current information on raptor ecology and conservationstatus in various regions of the province (Section 10). Describe the relevant provincial and federal legislation that protectsraptors and their habitat (Sections 6 & 14.1).3 How to Use This DocumentThis document provides easy-to-follow guidelines and measures to helpensure that developments in urban and rural areas are sensitive to theecological needs of raptors. In many cases, a developer or landowner canmake a significant contribution to the biodiversity of an area if the relativelysimple guidelines in this document are followed. There are also limitations tothis guidebook. Interactions of raptors with their environment, including2

Backgroundhuman developments, are very complex, and the measures presented in thisdocument should not be viewed as a comprehensive description of allpossible management actions. For large or complex projects, a developer isencouraged to seek advice from a professional biologist.The document is organized as follows: Important background information ispresented in Sections 1 through 5, and Section 6 summarizes legalrequirements and limitations pertaining to raptor habitat protection in BritishColumbia. BMPs intended to protect, enhance or restore raptors and theirhabitats in urban and rural environments are presented in Section 8.Recommended monitoring and reporting strategies to evaluate theeffectiveness of BMPs are presented in Section 9. Species accounts in Section10 provide information on the life history and conservation status of theraptors of British Columbia. Important technical terms are highlighted withinthe body of the text and defined in the Glossary (Section 11). Scientificinformation upon which this document is based is presented in Section 12.Additional information available on the Internet, covering a wide range ofraptor-related topics is presented in Section 13.Hyperlinks (indicated by words underlined and in blue) to relatedinformation in the document or on the World Wide Web occur throughoutthe document. For example, the first hyperlink in each species accountconnects to a raptor photograph on the Internet. To return to the BMPdocument after visiting an external link, click your Internet browser’s “back”button.4 Background4.1 What are Raptors?Figure 1. The Bald Eagle is animpressive raptor often used assymbol of power and freedom. Itnests in large trees close to fishbearing waterbodies and prefersundisturbed foraging areas free ofharassment by humans and pets.Raptors are predatory birds that include eagles, hawks, falcons, and owls. Theterm “raptor” is from the Latin word rapere meaning, “to take by force”.Predators kill the animals they eat. Scavengers find and eat animals that arealready dead, or nearly dead. Raptors typically hunt and kill their prey, thoughsome species regularly scavenge too. An example is the Bald Eagle, whichcommonly kills birds and fish, but also feeds on the dead and dying bodies ofspawned-out salmon. Raptors are equipped with sharp talons (claws) and ahooked beak that assist them in their predatory way of life. Sharp talonsassist with the capture and holding of prey, while the beak helps tear fleshand other tissues.The Turkey Vulture, a scavenger rather than a predator, was once consideredto be related to hawks and eagles, but is now placed in the same group asherons and storks. They are included in this document because they havesimilar requirements as some true raptors and sometimes occur in urban andrural environments.3

BackgroundFalcons, hawks, and eagles are active primarily during daylight hours, whereasowls are mainly active at night. However, there are exceptions to this pattern,since the Northern Pygmy-Owl, Northern Hawk Owl and Short-eared Owlmay be commonly seen during the day.Figure 2. In contrast to most owls, the Northern Pygmy-Owl (shown holding a mouse)commonly hunts during the day. It nests in tree cavities such as those created bywoodpeckers.Figure 3. Fish-bearing lakes, large trees near the shoreline, and coniferous woodlandsprovide raptors and their prey with important habitats. LGL Limited photo.4

Background4.2 Why Raptors are ImportantFigure 4. Barn Owls often nest in oldfarm buildings in agricultural areas.They consume large numbers of smallmammals such as voles, mice, rats andshrews.Raptors play important roles in ecosystems and are valued by society inseveral ways:Aesthetic Values—A species’ natural beauty and artistic appreciation. Raptorshave many attributes admired by the public including a striking, nobleappearance, remarkable flying ability and keen senses. The aesthetic values ofraptors are often portrayed in the work of artists and photographers.Spiritual Values—A species’ relation with and role in human culture, spanningscales ranging from an individual to an entire society. Bald Eagles, Golden Eagles andother raptors play a significant spiritual role in many Native Americansocieties. Throughout history, raptors have been an emblem of strength,courage and freedom, and are frequently the namesake of sports teams,automobiles, and aircraft. Humans first landed on the moon in a modulenamed “Eagle” (Link). By viewing wild raptors in urban and rural areas,people are able to maintain an important psychological connection withnature.Recreational Values—Qualities stemming from recreational pursuits associatedwith the species. Economic and non-economic aspects are included. Examples ofrecreational values of raptors include bird-watching and falconry. Raptors arerenowned for their ability to attract bird-watchers (e.g., the annual gatheringof Bald Eagles near Squamish, British Columbia; Link, and concentration ofmigrating raptors at Beechy Head on the southern tip of Vancouver Island).Educational and Scientific Values—The study of raptors allows a betterunderstanding of the world around us. This understanding may simply add to ourknowledge base or be used to improve the quality of human life and ecological conditions.Because of their top position in the food-chain, raptors serve as barometersof environmental change and overall ecosystem health. They typically requirelarge areas and healthy prey populations for survival. As such, measures thatconserve raptors can provide an umbrella of protection for many other plantand animal species. The quality of raptor health is a measure ofenvironmental health. For example, environmental contamination with DDTresulted in adverse effects on many species of raptors. By discontinuing theuse of that pesticide to conserve raptors (and other species), environmentalconditions for humans and other animals have improved.Ecological Values—The roles that species play in the ecosystems they occupy.Raptors consume a wide variety of prey including small mammals, birds,reptiles, amphibians, fish, and insects. Hence, they play a role in regulatingprey populations and in nutrient cycling. Raptors are also importantcomponents of biological diversity. The variation among different speciesand the genetic variation within individual species of raptors (i.e., the “genepool”) contribute to the biodiversity of a region. Because research intoraptors is ongoing, the full range of ecological values will not likely be known5

Backgroundfor many years. Thus, it is prudent to conserve raptors to retain both theirknown and presently unknown ecological values. Such an approach followsthe precautionary principle.Economic Values—How raptors affect the lives and livelihoods of people. Byhelping to control prey populations, raptors can directly benefit humans byreducing pest species (many of which are non-native) such as rats, mice,rabbits, starlings, house sparrows, pigeons, and grasshoppers. Eagles andVultures help reduce the spread of disease by cleaning up dead and rottinganimal carcasses. Travelling birdwatchers spend considerable amounts ofmoney on food, drink, lodging, gasoline and other local services. Raptors arehighly sought by birders and communities with large raptor populations canbenefit economically. The Bald Eagles of Brackendale near Squamish are asignificant source of tourist revenue for the surrounding community (Link).The presence of raptor habitat (wooded areas, wetlands, old fields) can addto the economic value (marketability) of a property. Falconers use raptors toscare other birds from airports to reduce the risk of birdstrikes and aircraftdamage, reduce crop damage, disperse pest species at landfills, and reducepollution of urban parks by keeping geese away from sports fields andswimming beaches.4.3 The Role of Local Government inRaptor ConservationLocalgovernments arewell positioned toconserve raptorsusing provisionsin the LocalGovernment Actand CommunityCharterCurrent legislation at the provincial level protects birds, their nests and eggs,but provides little, if any, protection for their habitats—especially on private,municipal and regional lands. This poses a problem for raptors in urban andrural environments where most land is privately owned. So, while theProvince retains jurisdiction over raptors in British Columbia, local(municipal and regional) governments are often in a better position to serveas stewards of raptor habitat in urban and rural areas. Through the LocalGovernment Act and Community Charter, local governments have the authority toregulate development within their jurisdiction. The role of local governmentsin the maintenance of raptor populations is vital because much of BritishColumbia’s best land for development also contains critical raptor habitatused for breeding, migrating/staging and wintering. This overlap typicallyoccurs in the lowlands and valley bottoms, which contain productive raptorhabitats. Such land is relatively rare in British Columbia; a provincedominated by high, rugged mountains with harsh climates, and limited foodsupply for raptors.The role of local governments and the development community in protectingraptors is expected to expand in the future. For example, the CommunityCharter empowers municipalities with the ability to take a leading role inwildlife stewardship. Local governments need to address the habitat needs ofraptors and other wildlife when regulating development. The responsibilityfor stewardship is shared among several parties, including the ProvincialGovernment.6

Key Issues of Concern and Conservation OpportunitiesMany opportunities exist for local governments to protect raptors and theirhabitats: Local development regulations and guidelines can be adopted basedon information obtained by identifying and mapping importantraptor habitats, which can be carried out together with othergovernments and NGO groups. This approach not only benefitsraptors, but it also provides developers with a degree ofunderstanding and certainty regarding what developments might beacceptable in a given area, so saving time and money for developers. Official Community Plans (OCPs) can be used to delineate UrbanContainment Boundaries, Environmentally Sensitive Areas, andDevelopment Permit Areas. Zoning can dictate acceptable land usesand by-laws can provide habitat protection (e.g., stream set-backs andwildlife tree protection). OCPs can be used as a mechanism toprotect important raptor habitat features, including nest sites,foraging areas, roosting sites and surrounding protective buffers. Local governments can facilitate the establishment of ConservationCovenants, which protect habitats. Density transfers and densitybonuses can be used to reduce urban sprawl and allow theestablishment of wildlife conservation zones. As guided by this document and/or as assisted by expert advice, localgovernment staff unfamiliar with raptor ecology can gain confidenceto assess, amend, approve, or reject a development application.Further information on how local governments can help conserve wildlifehabitats and natural ecosystems is presented in Best Management Practices forUrban and Rural Land Development and Nowlan et al. (2001; Link). Henigman(2004) describes in detail how local governments can protect raptor nestsites, using Bald Eagle nest trees on Vancouver Island as an example.5 Key Issues of Concern andConservation OpportunitiesA major threat to raptor habitat in British Columbia is the large-scaleconversion of agricultural lands and natural areas to land uses that typicallyinvolve impermeable surfaces (i.e., pavement and asphalt) and buildings.Between 1971 and 2001, the total area of urban land in B.C. increased fromabout 1750 km2 to 4050 km2 (Statistics Canada 2005), resulting in the loss ordegradation of productive agricultural land, valley bottom habitats andgreenspaces. Intensive agricultural practices, such as expansive greenhousedevelopments, are also reducing raptor habitats. The Lower Fraser Valley and7

Key Issues of Concern and Conservation OpportunitiesDelta tra

maintain or enhance raptor biodiversity in urban and rural environments can be realised. Preserving and managing raptor habitats within urban and rural landscapes benefits more than just the birds. Many of the habitat features required by raptors add aesthetic and market value to real estate developments, and the