WIXLIB

can include economic abuse (Postmus, Plummer, McMahon, Murshid, & Kim, 2012).Forms of economic abuse may include the abuser’s being in charge of all income,preventing the spouse from working, and/or harassing them in the workplace. Estimatessuggest 75% of employed battered women are harassed in their work setting by abusers,and 54% of them lose their job because of it (Cowell & Burgess, 1996).Introduction to Theoretical ApproachesA theoretical framework is important to reference when creating interventions forany population. The theoretical approaches that will be applied in this project willinclude Social Cognitive Career Theory, Super’s Developmental Self-Concept Theory,and Schlossberg’s Transition Theory. In this section, a brief overview will be providedof each.Social Cognitive Career TheoryThe Social Cognitive Career Theory discusses the cognitive variables, includingan individual’s level of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and personal goals, whichallow them to have personal control in their career development Additionally, thesevariables are also affected by the environment, physical attributes (e.g. sex and race), andprior learning experiences (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2000). This is beneficial forworking with women from abused relationships because research has showed that thesevariables are greatly affected in their lives. Specifically, the environment they have livedin has temporarily interfered with their ability to exercise their personal control. Theapplication of this theory involves helping an individual create goals towards their careerdevelopment, developing self-efficacy, and creating a safe, socially welcomingenvironment.4

Super’s Developmental Self-Concept TheorySuper’s Life-Span, Life-Space theory involves the different stages that anindividual goes through. Depending on the life roles they participate in (e.g., parent,spouse, student), they may place a different value on their experiences (e.g., their job)(Super, Savickes, & Super, 1996). This theory focuses on both the adjustment and choiceof roles, especially the work role. When an individual chooses a new work role, thechoice will depend on the abilities and interests that the individual has developed,combined with what the workplace requires. It is determined to be a good fit when theperson who has entered the new occupation feels a sense of job success, satisfaction, andstability (Super, et al.). Through the career development process, one can increase theirself-concept and identity awareness. Interest assessments can be a beneficial startingpoint to become aware of the potential matches between themselves and the workplace.Schlossberg’s Transition TheorySchlossberg’s Transition theory states that transitions alter our lives in terms ofour roles, relationships, routines and assumptions. There are three types of transitionsthat occur: Anticipated, Unanticipated, and Nonevent transitions (Schlossberg, 2011).Anticipated transitions are changes in events that we expect to happen, such as graduatingfrom school. Unanticipated transitions are changes in events that unexpectedly occur andmay cause angst or chaos, such as a car accident. Lastly, the Nonevent transitions arechanges that are expected to occur, but do not, such as getting married as planned(Schlossberg, 2011). Each individual has a different way of processing these transitions.For some, it may be an easy transition, but for many the transition will take time to copewith.5

Transition theory outlines the four S’s that affect the way an individual copes witha transition. The first “S” is Situation, which refers to what the individual’s life situationis like at the time of the transition. If he/she is not having multiple stressors at one time,the transition will likely be easier to adapt to. The second “S” is Self, which refers to howwell an individual reacts to a situation (e.g. optimistic vs. pessimistic). The third “S” isSupports. Having a well-established support system is important during the time of atransition for the individual’s healthy well-being. Supports can include professionalorganizations, resources, counselors, family, and friends. The last “S” is Strategies,which outlines the importance of using multiple strategies to cope with new situations(Schlossberg, 2011). There is no perfect coping strategy for a given transition, so onemust be flexible and adapt to different methods depending on the situation. The four S’sare critical to understand when working with individuals to help them understand thetransition process, how it is affecting them, and how to best cope with the life changes.Consequences of the ProblemAs stated above, domestic violence relationships could be defined as dealing withphysical, economic, emotional, and/or verbal abuse (Cowell & Burgess, 1996), which cancreate an abundance of issues for an individual. The abuse affects both the psychologicaland emotional well being of the individual involved. In terms of Career Development,the economic abuse and control from the spouse creates a dependent relationship inwhich the survivors of domestic violence are without support and resources to develop intheir career or educational path.In a study by Browne, Saloon,and Bassuk (1999) it was found that women inabusive relationships had a low likelihood of having a job that was full-time or that lastedlonger than 6 months compared to women who were not.6

LimitationsThere are several limitations to this project. Due to the lack of extended researchwithin this population, the project has a very broad view of interventions. The researchlacks a focus on the career development of women specifically who have escaped adomestic violence relationship and are now working to build their lives throughout time.Additionally, there is limited information regarding the differences that may occuramongst different race, ethnicity, culture, as well as differences among women’sexperiences related to the amount of time they have been out of the relationship.This program will also not be able to address all of the barriers and needs for thispopulation. The program will focus primarily on the career development of the womenparticipants with the desired outcomes of building their self-efficacy and helping them tobecome goal oriented. The program will not focus on the children’s or parent’s mentalhealth issues or the cycle of abuse. However, psychological groups and counseling willbe required for the participants and safety plans will be established.Technical Terminology for ProjectIn this section, the common technical terms are defined as each pertains to thisproject. The definitions were provided from a variety of professional sources usedthroughout.Social Cognitive Career Theory – A career theory based on the “mechanisms of selfefficacy and outcome expectations, contextual barriers and supports, and personal goals”(Chronister & McWhirter, 2004, p. 170).Domestic Violence (DV) – Victims in a relationship that may be “physical (e.g.,punching), sexual (e.g. physically forcing sex), psychological (e.g. humiliating in private7

or public), and/or economic abuse (e.g., sabotaging attempts to work or to go to school)”(Chronister, Brown, & Wettersten, 2004, p. 900).Battered Women – “Female victims of domestic violence” (Collins, 2011, p. 246).Self-efficacy – “Belief in one’s ability to perform specific behaviors” (Chronister &McWhirter, 2003, p. 419).Outcome Expectations – “Beliefs about the likely consequences of performing specificbehaviors” (Chronister, 2006, p. 176).Critical Consciousness –Critical consciousness is the “awareness of power dynamics atwork in her life” (Chronister & McWhirter, 2001).Survivor – can be defined as an individual who has left their intimate partner violencerelationship, which could be for many reasons, including gaining a sense of self and hopefor the future, gaining an awareness of a safe place to escape to, and having confidencethat there is community support available (McLeod, Hays, & Chang, 2010)Career Counseling - defined as the “process of assisting individuals in the developmentof a life-career with focus on the definition of the worker role and how that role interactswith other life roles” (National Career Development Association, 1997)Intimate partner violence – “physical, sexual, or psychological harm to a person by acurrent or former partner or spouse” (Domestic Violence Awareness Month, 2005)Resiliency can be defined as “personality traits and coping strategies that enable a childor adult to overcome harrowing life experiences” (Kragh & Huber, 2002, p. 294).8

CHAPTER II: Review of the literatureThis chapter will provide a review of the literature relating to the multitude ofbarriers that women from abusive relationships face and how this can interfere with theircareer development process. These barriers include mental health issues, issues in theworkplace, economic abuse, difficulty disclosing the abuse, low self-efficacy, and more.The theoretical perspectives used in this Career Development Program will alsobe described. The theories discussed will be Social Cognitive Career Theory, Super’sDevelopmental Self-Concept Theory, and Schlossberg’s Transition Theory and how eachcan be applied to this population when creating a successful program.Summary of General Theoretical PerspectivesThis career development program created is based on the theoretical perspectivesof Social Cognitive Career Theory, Super’s Developmental Self-Concept, andSchlossberg’s Transition Theory. In this section, a general summary will be provided foreach theory.Social Cognitive Career TheorySocial Cognitive Career theory has been applied to women in domestic violencerelationships in past intervention programs and research. It is based on Albert Bandura’sSocial Cognitive Theory, which is the process of discovering career and educationalinterests, the choices an individual makes, and the work an individual puts in towards theengagement of these endeavors. Later, the theory added environmental influences andthe acknowledgement of the various roles of an individual. Additionally, thoseindividuals take an active part in their experiences and growth (Chronister & McWhirter,2003).9

The three aspects that have been applied to this population are self-efficacyexpectations, outcome expectations, and personal goals. This can be explained, as thelevel in which in individual believes in him or herself to perform tasks (self-efficacyexpectations), the belief that that their abilities will lead to certain payoffs (outcomeexpectations), and the knowledge that one must act on his or her goals to create change(personal goals) (Lent, et. al, 2000).Super’s Developmental Self-ConceptCareer self-concept theory involves an individual’s own perspective on thepurpose of their experiences and how it relates to abilities, interests, values, and choices(Super, Savickas, & Super 1996). This framework takes on the subjective approach; themeaning behind experiences using verbal, nonverbal, and written stories, rather thanfocusing primarily on an assessment that is compared to others. This approach highlightsthe strengths and uniqueness of each individual and how they see themselves in relationto the world of work. Life situations are ever changing, which is why this development isa long-term process.Super defines self-concept as a “picture of the self in some role, situation, orposition, performing some set of functions, or in some web of relations (Super, Savickas,& Super, 1996).” It is critical for self-concept to be developed and understood by theindividual because if it is unrealistic or negative, a person may become indecisive whenmaking a match to an occupation.Schlossberg’s Transition TheorySchlossberg’s Transition theory focuses on transitions and the way they alter ourlives in terms of our roles, relationships, routines and assumptions. There are three types10

of transitions that occur: Anticipated, Unanticipated, and Nonevent transitions(Schlossberg, 2011) and this can make a difference in how the transition affects anindividual. Transition theory outlines the four “S”s that play a role in how an individualcopes with a transition. The first “S” is Situation, which refers to what the individual’slife situation is like at the time of the transition. If he/she is not having multiple stressorsat one time, the transition will likely be easier to adapt to. The second “S” is Self, whichrefers to how well an individual reacts to a situation (e.g. optimistic vs. pessimistic). Thethird “S” is Supports. Having a well-established support system is important during thetime of a transition for the individual’s healthy well-being. Supports can includeprofessional organizations, resources, counselors, family, and friends. The last “S” isStrategies, which outlines the importance of using multiple strategies to cope with newsituations (Schlossberg, 2011). These will be explored in more depth into how theyapply to working with the population of women who have survived a domestic violencerelationship.Literature ReviewAccording to the Centers for Disease Control (2003), “about 5.3 million partnervictimizations occur every year among women who are age 18 years or older, whichresults in nearly 2 million injuries to women and almost 13,000 deaths each year”(Chronister, Harley, Aranda, Barr, & Luginbuhl, 2011, p. 516). The U.S. Department ofJustice (2000, 2001), reported that “64% to 85% of domestic violence victims are womenand domestic assaults may be physical, sexual, psychological, and/or economic abuse”(Chronister, Wettersten, & Brown, 2004, p. 900). Additionally, estimates suggest 75% of11

employed battered women are harassed in their work setting by abusers, and 54% of themlose their job because of it (Cowell & Burgess, 1996)Researchers have studied the barriers that women face when trying to leave anabusive home environment. These barriers include lack of support from family andfriends, fear of not being safe in a new environment, and limited or no financial stability.Women who remain in the home of a domestic violence situation are less likely to seekout and/or be successful in a treatment plan that develops independence and self-efficacyskills (Chronister & McWhirter, 2006). Literature shows that stress, depression, andanxiety disorders also make it difficult for women to leave an abusive relationship. Theymay feel trapped and learn to believe it is the only way to live (Collins, 2011).BarriersMental Health IssuesResearchers have various views on the extent in which women from domesticviolence relationships have experienced PTSD symptoms. Kimerling, Alvarez, Pavao,Smith, and Baumrind, (2009) stated that PTSD was found to be significantly associatedwith unemployment. Psychological abuse was found to also have a higher significancethan physical abuse towards the likelihood of being unemployed. The symptoms foundwere ranging from “traumatic memories, hyper-arousal, and difficulty concentrating”.PTSD affects decision-making, coping, social skills, time management, and problemsolving (Matthews, 2005), which are skills needed to be successful in the workplace.Career counselors need this awareness because it is difficult to assist with careerexploration without the psychological and safety concerns being addressed.12

Low Self-EfficacyIsolation is seen as one of the barriers in domestic violence relationships becausethe victim is often restricted from outside activities, working, and/or maintaining friends(Chronister & McWhirter, 2006). Such isolation does not allow the individual to developskills, accomplish goals, or have exposure to the outside world. In return, this has aneffect on an individual’s self-efficacy, what the person feels he or she is capable ofaccomplishing.In a study by Brown, Reedy, and Fountain (2000), a sample of 71 battered womenwho were residents of six different shelters in the Midwest, were studied to determinetheir perceived career barriers, self-esteem, locus of control, work-role attitudes, andcareer decision-making self-efficacy. The participants were given a self-reported scaleinventory for each factor to determine their perceptions. The battered women reportracial discrimination, inadequate preparation, and dissatisfaction with career, to be the topbarriers in pursuing or maintaining a career (Brown et al.). The biggest personal barrierswere finding housing, transportation, and childcare when trying to be successful in acommunity assistance program. In addition to personal counseling, the participantsreported wanting assistance with matching interests to career opportunities, and havingon-site resources to explore in the library (Brown et al.).Issues in the WorkplaceThis population also lacks career role models and their own career developmentawareness (Collins, 2011). Furthermore, when women are able to work while in anabusive relationship, they tend to be harassed by their abusers, causing them to misswork, and eventually be fired (Chronister & McWhirter, 2003). It is important for13

clinicians to understand that women in domestic violent relationships need assistance toimplement strategies on how to remain in the job and develop a career, while continuingto overcome the personal barriers they face. Short-term interventions that only assistwith job search and resume building are not sufficient for long-term positive results foran individual in a battered relationship (Chronister et al.).Multiple issues play a role in the impact domestic violence has on women in theworkforce. In a qualitative study by Wettersten, Rudolph, Faul, Gallahjer, Trangsrud,Adams, Graham, and Terrance (2004), interviews were completed with six adults whohave worked with this population and 10 participants who had experienced domesticviolence and now lived in a shelter. Some of these issues found included their spouse’sjealousy of coworker relationships, difficulty concentrating, harassment, too manyabsences, and having an overwhelming amount of responsibilities both at work andhome.A significant number of women from this population do not ha

These two individuals made Career Counseling an option for me and ignited my passion for the field. Marie Dahan, my mentor and advisor when I first began community college. . Appendix A: Intake Form 63! Appendix B: Confidentiality 65! Appendix C: Creating Goals 66! Appendix D: Safety Plan Form 69! Appendix E: Life Roles 70!