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Identification of Escape Routes and Safety Zonesis one of the primary responsibilities of anywildland firefighter working on or near the fireline.The following guidelines can be used whenselecting Safety Zones: Calculations indicate that for most fires, SafetyZones must be wider than 164 feet to ensurefirefighter survival. The calculation to determine Safety Zoneradius is four times the maximum flame heightplus 50 square feet per firefighter, or anadditional four feet of radius per firefighter.This calculation provides the radius of theSafety Zone, meaning the Safety Zonediameter should be twice the value of theabove formula. If potential for the fire to burn completelyaround the Safety Zone exists, the diametershould be twice the values indicated above. Factors that will reduce Safety Zone sizeinclude reduction in flame height by thinningor burnout operations, shielding the SafetyZone from direct exposure to the flame bylocating it on the lee side of ridges or othergeographic structures, or reducing flametemperatures by applying fire retardant to thearea around the Safety Zone. All firefighter PPE must be worn. Keep in mind that these guidelines do notaddress convective energy.Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety13

Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety14Safety Zone Guidelines Avoid locations that are downwind from thefire. Avoid locations that are in chimneys, saddles,or narrow canyons. Avoid locations that require a steep uphillescape route. Take advantage of heat barriers such as leeside of ridges, large rocks, or solid structures. Burn out safety zones prior to flame frontapproach. For radiant heat only, the distance separationbetween the firefighter and the flames must beat least 4 times the maximum flame height.This distance must be maintained on all sides,if the fire has ability to burn completelyaround the safety zone. Convective heatfrom wind and/or terrain influences willincrease this distance requirement. Thecalculations in the following table assumeno slope and no wind.

FlameHeight10 ft.20 ft.50 ft.75 ft.100 ft200 ft.Distance Separation(firefighters toflame)40 ft.80 ft.200 ft.300 ft.400 ft.800 ft.Area inAcres1/10 acre1/2 acre3 acres7 acres12 acres50 acresDistance Separation is the radius from the centerof the safety zone to the nearest fuels. When fuelsare present that will allow the fire to burn on allsides of the safety zone this distance must bedoubled in order to maintain effective separationin front, to the sides, and behind the firefighters.Area in Acres is calculated to allow for distanceseparation on all sides for a three person enginecrew. One acre is approximately the size of afootball field or exactly 208 feet x 208 feet.Last Resort SurvivalLook at your options and immediately act on thebest one!Utilize all Personal Protective Equipment!Protect your airway!Escape if you can: Drop any gear not needed for fire shelterdeployment (keep your fire shelter, hand tool,quart of water, and radio). You may be able to use the fire shelter for aheat shield as you move.Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety15

Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety16 In LIGHT FUELS, you may be able to moveback through the flames into the black. If you are on the flank of the fire, try to getbelow the fire. Consider vehicles or helicopters for escape.Find a survivable area:Stay out of hazardous terrain features. Use bodies of water that are more than 2 feetdeep. In LIGHT FUELS, you may be able to light anescape fire. In other fuels, you may be able to light abackfire. Call for helicopter or retardant drops. Cut and scatter fuels if there is time. Use any available heat barriers (structure,large rocks, dozer berms). Consider vehicle traffic hazards on roads.Pick a fire shelter deployment site:Find the lowest point available. Maximize distance from nearest aerial fuels orheavy fuels. Pick a surface that allows the fire shelter toseal and remove ground fuels.

Get into the fire shelter before the flame fronthits. Position your feet toward the fire and holddown the fire shelter. Keep your face pressed to the ground. Deploy next to each other and keep talking.Expect:Extremely heavy ember showers. Superheated air blast to hit before the flamefront hits. Noise and turbulent powerful winds hitting thefire shelter. Pin holes in the fire shelter that allow fire glowinside. Heat inside the shelter Extreme heat outside. Deployments have lasted up to 90 minutes. When in doubt wait it out.Downhill ChecklistDownhill fireline construction is hazardous in steepterrain, fast-burning fuels, or rapidly changingweather. Downhill fireline construction should notbe attempted unless there is no tactical alternative.When building downhill fireline, the following isrequired:Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety17

Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety18 Crew supervisor(s) and fireline overhead willdiscuss assignments prior to committingcrew(s). Responsible overhead individual willstay with job until completed (TFLD or ICT4qualified or higher). Decision will be made after proposed firelinehas been scouted by supervisor(s) of involvedcrew(s). LCES will be coordinated for all personnelinvolved.9Crew supervisor(s) is in direct contactwith lookout that can see the fire.9Communication is established between allcrews.9Rapid access to safety zone(s) in case firecrosses below crew(s). Direct attack will be used whenever possible;if not possible, the fireline should becompleted between anchor points before beingfired out. Fireline will not lie in or adjacent to a chute orchimney. Starting point will be anchored for crew(s)building fireline down from the top. Bottom of the fire will be monitored; if thepotential exists for the fire to spread, actionwill be taken to secure the fire edge.

Common Denominators of Fire Behavior onTragedy Fires Incidents happen on smaller fires or onisolated portions of larger fires. Fires look innocent before “flare-ups” or“blow-ups.” In some cases, tragedies mayoccur in the mop-up stage. Flare-ups generally occur in deceptively lightfuels. Fires run uphill surprisingly fast in chimneys,gullies, and on steep slopes. Wind direction or wind speed unexpectedlyshifts.Thunderstorm SafetyApproaching thunderstorms may be noted by asudden reverse in wind direction, a noticeable risein wind speed, and a sharp drop in temperature.Rain, hail, and lightning occur only in the maturestage of a thunderstorm.Observe the 30/30 rule: a) If you see lightning andhear thunderclaps within 30 seconds take stormcounter-measures identified below. b) Do notresume work in exposed areas until 30 minutesafter storm activity has passed. Take shelter in a vehicle or building ifpossible.Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety19

Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety20 If outdoors, find a low spot away from talltrees, wire fences, utility lines, and otherelevated conductive objects. Make sure theplace you pick is not subject to flooding. If in the woods, move to an area with shortertrees. If only isolated trees are nearby, keep yourdistance twice the tree height. If in open country, crouch low minimizingcontact with the ground. You can use a packto sit on, but never lay on the ground. If you feel your skin tingle or your hair standon end, immediately crouch low to the ground.Make yourself the smallest possible target andminimize your contact with the ground. Don’t group together. Don’t stay on ridgetops, in wide open areas,near ledges or rock outcroppings. Don’t operate land line telephones, machinery,or electric motors. Don’t handle flammable materials in opencontainers or metal hand tools. Handheld radios and cellular telephones canbe used.

Clothing and Personal ProtectiveEquipment (PPE) All PPE must meet or exceed NFPA 1977Standard on Protective Clothing andEquipment for Firefighters (current edition). Wear hard hat while on the fireline. Wear 8-inch laced all-leather boots with slipand melt-resistant soles and heels. Wear flame-resistant clothing while on thefireline and when flying in helicopters. Do notwear clothing, even undergarments, made ofsynthetic materials which can burn and melton your skin. Roll down sleeves to the wrist. Use leather gloves to protect hands. Use eye and face protection whenever there isa danger from material being thrown back inyour face. Determine and comply with host agencyrequirements regarding fire shelters on firelinesuppression assignments or follow your ownagency’s requirements if they are morerestrictive. The fire shelter is a tool of lastresort, not to be used tactically. Use hearing protection when working withhigh noise-level firefighting equipment, suchas helicopters, air tankers, chain saws, pumps,etc.Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety21

Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety22 When operating chain saws, sawyers andswampers will wear additional safetyequipment including approved chaps, gloves,hard hat, eye and ear protection. Recommend use of an approved dust/smokemask when in heavy smoke and dustyenvironments. Use of a dust/smoke mask isnot a PPE requirement for all agencies at thistime. Face and neck protection (Nomex shrouds) arenot required PPE. If used, they must meetNFPA 1977. If issued, shrouds should bedeployed only in impending flash fuel or highradiant heat situations and not routinely wornthroughout the operational period, due to anunacceptable increase in physiological heatstress. PPE clothing will be cleaned or replacedwhenever soiled, particularly with oils. PPEwill be replaced when the fabric is so worn asto reduce fire resistance capability of thegarment.How to Properly Refuse RiskEvery individual has the right and obligation toreport safety problems and contribute ideasregarding their safety. Supervisors are expected togive these concerns and ideas seriousconsideration. When an individual feels anassignment is unsafe they also have the obligationto identify, to the degree possible, safe alternativesfor completing that assignment. Turning down anassignment is one possible outcome of managingrisk.

A “turn down” is a situation where an individualhas determined they cannot undertake anassignment as given and they are unable tonegotiate an alternative solution. The turn down ofan assignment must be based on an assessment ofrisks and the ability of the individual ororganization to control those risks. Individuals may turn down an assignment asunsafe when:9There is a violation of safe work practices.9Environmental conditions make the workunsafe.9They lack the necessary qualifications orexperience.9Defective equipment is being used. Individual will directly inform their supervisorthat they are turning down the assignment asgiven. The most appropriate means todocument the turn down is using the criteria(Standard Firefighting Orders, 18 Watch OutSituations, etc.), outlined in the RiskManagement Process. Supervisor will notify the Safety OfficerIMMEDIATELY upon being informed of theturn down. If there is no Safety Officer,notification shall go to the appropriate SectionChief or to the Incident Commander. Thisprovides accountability for decisions andinitiates communication of safety concernswithin the incident organization.Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety23

Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety249If the supervisor asks another resource toperform the assignment, they areresponsible to inform the new resourcethat the assignment has been turned downand the reasons that it was turned down.9If an unresolved safety hazard exists or anunsafe act was committed, the individualshould also document the turn down bysubmitting a SAFENET (ground hazard)or SAFECOM (aviation hazard) form in atimely manner.These actions do not stop an operation from beingcarried out. This protocol is integral to theeffective management of risk, as it provides timelyidentification of hazards to the chain of command,raises risk awareness for both leaders andsubordinates, and promotes accountability.After Action ReviewWhat was planned? Review the primary objectives and expectedaction plan.What actually happened? Review the day’s actions:9Identify and discuss effective and noneffective performance.9Identify barriers that were encounteredand how they were handled.

9Discuss all actions that were not standardoperating procedure, or those thatpresented safety problems.Why did it happen? Discuss the reasons for ineffective or unsafeperformance. Concentrate on WHAT, notWHO, is right.What can we do next time? Determine lessons learned and how to applythem in the future.FIREFIGHTER HEALTHFatigue – Work and Rest Establish record-keeping systems that trackcrew work time. Plan and strive to provide one hour of sleep orrest for every two hours worked. When deviating from work/rest guidelines, theagency administrator or incident commander(IC) must approve in writing. Start each operational period with restedcrews. Provide an adequate sleep environment. Monitor individuals for sleep deprivation.Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety25

Chapter 1 – Firefighting Safety26The pulse is a good way to gauge fatigue. Thepulse should recover in one minute or less to 110beats per minute, or, if not, a longer break isneeded. A firefighter’s wake-up pulse can signalpotential problems. If it is 10% or more abovenormal, it can mean fatigue, dehydration, or even apending illness.Food and NutritionNutritious food can be a morale booster, but moreimportantly, it fuels muscles for hard work andinternal organs for health and fitness. A firefightermay burn 5,000 to 6,000 calories a day. Thesecalories must be replaced to avoid cramping,fatigue, and impaired judgment. Governmentprovided food must be low in fats and high incomplex carbohydrates.Drinks provided must replace essential fluids lostfrom the body during exercise. On a normalfireline assignment, firefighters may replace 12 ormore quarts of fluids a day. In some cases,firefighters may need to replace one to two quartsof fluids per hour. Water is an excellent way toreplenish fluid loss. Natural juices and sport drinkscontain energy-restoring glucose. Avoidcaffeinated, carbonated, and “diet” drinks.Firefighter RehabilitationAreas designed for resting, eating, and sleepingshould be located in a safe, shady area away fromsmoke, noise, running fire, falling trees and snags,rolling rocks, moving vehicles, aircraft, andpackstock. Provide reasonable rest periods,especially at high elevations and on hot days.

Driving LimitationsDrivers operating vehicles that require aCommercial Drivers License (CDL) are regulatedby the Federal Motor Carriers Safety RegulationsPart 393.3 and any applicable State Laws.All governmental fire agencies are exempted fromseveral requirements of CDL regulation underDepartment of Transportation 49 CFR but aresubject to the NWCG National Incident OperationsDriving Standards.These standards address driving by personnelactively engaged in wildland fire or all riskresponse activities, including driving whileassigned to a specific incident or during initialattack fire response (includes time required tocontrol the fire and travel to a rest location). In theabsence of more restrictive agency policy, theseguidelines will be followed during mobilizationand demobilization as well. Individual agencydriving policies shall be consulted for all othernon-incident driving.1.Agency resources assigned to an incident orengaged in initial attack fire response willadhere to the current agency work/rest policyfor determining length of duty day.2.No driver will drive more than 10 hours(behind the wheel) within any duty day.3.Multiple drivers in a single vehicle may driveup to the duty-day limitation provided nodriver exceeds the indiv

PRIORITY OF THE WILDLAND FIRE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM. Remember To: Follow the Standard Firefighting Orders (inside front cover). Recognize the Watch Out Situations (inside back cover). Recognize the Common Denominators of Fire Behavior on Tragedy Fires (inside front cover). Follow the Risk Management Process. The Risk Management Process