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SHAKA ZULU’S LINKAGE OF STRATEGY ANDTACTICS: AN EARLY FORM OF OPERATIONAL ART?A MonographbyMAJ Calvin R. AllenUnited States ArmySchool of Advanced Military StudiesUnited States Army Command and General Staff CollegeFort Leavenworth, KansasAY 2014-001Approved for Public Release; Distribution is Unlimited
MONOGRAPH APPROVALName of Candidate:MAJ Calvin R. AllenMonograph Title:Shaka Zulu’s Linkage of Strategy and Tactics: An Early form ofOperational Art?Approved by:, Monograph DirectorChristopher Marsh, Ph.D., Seminar LeaderCharles M. Evans, COL, FA, Director, School of Advanced Military StudiesHenry A. Arnold III, COL, INAccepted this 22nd day of May 2014 by:, Director, Graduate Degree ProgramsRobert F. Baumann, Ph.D.The opinions and conclusions expressed herein are those of the student author, and do notnecessarily represent the views of the US Army Command and General Staff College or any othergovernment agency.ii
ABSTRACTSHAKA ZULU’S LINKAGE OF STRATEGY AND TACTICS: AN EARLY FORM OFOPERATIONAL ART, by MAJ Calvin R. Allen, US Army, 41 pages.Shaka Zulu was successful in establishing Zulu dominance in southern Africa because he was agreat strategist and military innovator. His political objective was to expand his territory with theunification of neighboring clans and war was the primary means used to achieve this. Hisemployment of tactics to achieve strategic objectives is reminiscent of operational art as it relatesto the arrangement of military forces in time, space, and purpose. In order to achieve his politicalobjectives, Shaka reorganized his clan, developed an intelligence network, and employed newtactics and strategies in his quest to form a new system of war thus allowing him to change thesociety and the nature of warfare in southern Africa. Shaka became the military architect ofsouthern Africa unification. Through the application of his innovative tactical actions andweapons, Shaka expanded his territory from a local district of a few hundred square miles tothousands of square miles. This was achieved by his unique ability to transform a small volunteerarmy of approximately 400 men to a standing army of 70,000 highly trained and disciplinedsoldiers. His victorious military campaigns against other clans culminated with the creation of theZulu empire in just ten years.After his death, other Zulu leaders emulated Shaka’s system of organization, tactics, and thestrategies he employed. These tactics were so successful that they remained the main offensivetactics employed by the Zulus until their defeat at the hands of the British in 1879. Thismonograph concludes that Shaka Zulu provided a blueprint for mastering the complexity ofmilitary affairs through tactics and effective strategy that is reminiscent of what is todayconsidered operational art.iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI would like to express my deepest gratitude to my monograph director Dr. ChristopherMarsh for his continued support and encouragement in my completion of this assignment. Youhave been a tremendous mentor to me during my time at SAMS. Likewise, Dr. RobertTomlinson, I offer you my sincere appreciation for your mentorship as well and for encouragingmy research topic. Your voice of reason when needed has been priceless. I would also like toexpress my special appreciation to Colonel Charles M. Evans, my seminar leader, for the learningopportunities you provided.My completion of SAMS and this monograph could not have been accomplished withoutthe support of a few of my classmates: LTC Jackie (Jack) East, Major Michael (Jody) Shouse,Major Jeffrey (Jeff) Quail, Major Tim Lynch, Major Albert (Al) Olagbemiro, and Major Matthew(Matt) Metcalf. Thanks to all of you for your encouragement and above all your friendship.Finally, to my caring, loving, and supportive wife, Shalia. Thanks for your willingness toshoulder the burden of managing our household activities while I completed the hectic workloadassociated with being a SAMS student. Please accept my heartfelt thanks.iv
TABLE OF CONTENTSGLOSSARY/LEGEND .viILLUSTRATIONS . viiINTRODUCTION . 1The Western World and Africa’s Past . 3Zulu Clan before King Shaka. 5Shaka the Unwanted . 6Shaka – King of the Zulu . 10SHAKA’S MILITARY METHOD AND TRADITIONAL WARFARE . 11Military Strategy of King Shaka . 15Military Genius and New Tactics . 16Shaka’s Strategy. 19SHAKA BATTLE IN CIVIL WAR UNIFICATION . 21First Major Zulu War with the Ndwandwe Clan (1818) . 22Second Major Zulu War with Ndwandwe Clan . 27Were Shaka’s Innovations Long Lasting? . 30THE ZULU AND THE BRITISH WAR OF 1879 . 32The British Invade Zululand . 33The Zulu and British Armies . 34Zulu War Tactics versus the British Modern Army . 36CONCLUSION . 37BIBLIOGRAPHY . 40v
GLOSSARY/LEGENDabakwaZuluPeople of ZuluamaButhoZulu military age group regimentsIshakaAn intestinal beetle usually blamed for menstrual irregularitiesOofakaniThe crushingUmuziHomesteadImip-sbomvuTotal waramaWombeWarriorsizimPohloThe bachelor’s brigadeuFasimbThe hazeimpondo zankomoBullhorn formationImpiAn armed body of menIbuthoZulu regimentKraalAfrican village huts; homesteadvi
ILLUSTRATIONSFigure 1: Graph of King Senzangakhona Lineage . 7Figure 2: Portrait of King Shaka, Founder of the Zulu Nation. 8Figure 3: Shaka’s Assegai . 10Figure 4: Shaka’s Regimental Color-Coded Shields . 15Figure 5: The Battle of Gqokli Hill . 23Figure 6: Phase I (Deployment) of the “Bullhorn”. 25Figure 7: Phase II (Assault) of the “Bullhorn” . 25Figure 8: Phase III (Encirclement) of the “Bullhorn” . 26vii
“Battle is the means of the operation. Tactics are the material of operational art.The operation is the means of strategy, and operational art is the material of strategy.”― A. Svechin, StrategiiaINTRODUCTIONIn the early nineteenth century, the legendary Zulu warrior, Shaka Zulu, emerged as aleading figure in the military and political state of affairs in the Zulu Kingdom of southern Africa.Born out of wedlock to a father who was the Chief of the Zulus, his clan exiled him at a youngage. Shaka Zulu eventually returned upon his father’s death to claim his place as the Chief of theZulus. Under his leadership, he built a mighty army of Zulu soldiers, and subsequently conqueredand united several tribes to form a powerful Zulu Kingdom. As a leader, he placed emphasis onmilitary organization and skills. He devised and drilled his soldiers in battle tactics, strategy, andobedience. He introduced a system of conscription, and divided his soldiers into regiments calledAmmabutu. With his army, Shaka changed the nature of warfare in southern Africa from aminimal loss of life amongst enemies into total destruction of the enemy on the battlefield.The expansion of his armies caused a ripple effect across the southern areas of Africa,incorporating more clans into the Zulu Kingdom. Military innovations such as the assegai (Zuluthrusting spear) and the impondo zankomo “bullhorn” attack formation enabled Shaka’s army tosurround and annihilate his enemies. The innovative tactics and military reforms of Shaka Zulufacilitated the success of Shaka’s unification of neighboring clans and Zulu dominancethroughout southern Africa. Despite military reforms and successes in all his campaigns, mosthistorical writer’s label Shaka as a tyrant, bloodlust, savage, and barbarian who launched a waveof violence across southern Africa. Nevertheless, he created the Zulu nation and is widelyacknowledged to have demonstrated the traits of military genius for his time, traits that can belinked to the application of military operational art.While the exact origin of operational art remains controversial, there are two theories thatcontinue to spur debate at the US Army School of Advanced Studies (SAMS). The first theory1
argues that operational art began with Napoleon, and the second theory gives credit to the USCivil War as the origin. Despite not knowing the exact origin, there is less of a controversy as tothe meaning of operational art. These two schools of thought focus their theories on interpretationof current US Army doctrine, which defines operational art as “the pursuit of strategic objectives,in whole or part, through the arrangement of tactical actions in time, space, and purpose.”1Leading up to the nineteenth century, the term “operation” referred to military activities thatinvolved, but were not limited to campaigns, routes of march, foraging and supply, and what wastraditionally referred to as strategy, arguably became operational art. The focus of this monographis to answer the following question. Given our current understanding of operational art, wasShaka Zulu’s employment of tactics to achieve his strategic objectives reminiscent of operationalart as it relates to the arrangement of military forces in time, space, and purpose?The methodology to answer the thesis and answer the above question focuses onanalyzing key factors of Shaka’s successful leadership. Four distinct perspectives characterize thefollowing analysis. The first section provides the basis for Shaka’s military ambitions based onhis childhood experiences. The second section focuses on Shaka influence on Africa’s traditionalwarfare and the principles for his military reform and success during his campaigns. SectionThree answer the question whether Shaka Zulu's employment of tactics to achieve his strategicobjectives is reminiscent of operational art as it relates to the arrangement of military forces intime and space. The final section exemplifies Shaka’s lasting principles of war and warfare inAfrica.1US Army, Army Doctrinal Publication 3-0, Unified Land Operations (Washington, DC:Government Printing Office, 2011), 9.2
The Western World and Africa’s PastThe Western world knows less about Africa’s past than anywhere else on earth. Thiscould be due to the scarcity of written records, but could also be the Western world’s ignorancebased on a colonial mindset or Africa’s ties to slavery. Whatever the case, Europeans have beentrading in southern Africa since the sixteenth century and had well established outposts on theAfrican coast. On the west coast, first the Dutch and later the British controlled the city of CapeTown. Trade was a catalyst that transformed the Zulu from a small clan under local chieftains to amajor regional power. The third decade of the nineteenth century witnessed the rise of the Zuluclan into a centralized state, which amounted to a politically organized region dominated by theZulu royal family and the Zulu military systems.2The Portuguese had a trading post at Delagoa Bay placing them closer to Zulu territorythan either the Dutch or the British in Cape Town. In exchange for ivory, cattle, and slaves, thePortuguese and other European traders supplied Africans with copper, brass, textiles, and beads.By the end of the eighteenth century, rival ethnic groups began to compete more aggressively foraccess to trade routes that linked them to Delagoa Bay. The Africans viewed trade with thePortuguese as vital for local power and influence. Small chieftains were in danger of larger clansdestroying them in the fight for goods to trade with the Europeans. Out of this turmoil emerged aleader, Shaka – King of the Zulu, who changed Zulu and African history forever. In the space oftwelve years during the early nineteenth century, he transformed the small Zulu chieftains into alarge and powerful military force.The effects from Dutch pressure on the western African frontier by the end of theeighteenth century created a population problem. Subsequently, pressures within the southeasternAdam Kuper, “The House and Zulu Political Structure in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal ofAfrican History 34, no. 3 (1993), 496.23
regions of Africa made the domination by one single ruler inevitable.3 The population coupledwith poor economic conditions caused widespread social upheaval. In the 1830s, descendants ofthe original Dutch settlers, now called “Boers,” migrated into the interior of South Africa andcame into conflict with the Zulu. The battles with the Boer settlers continued well into the late1800s, but never truly threatened Zulu sovereignty. Eventually, the Zulu came into conflict withthe British Army as it expanded its control over southern Africa, invading the Zulu homeland inthe process.Under Shaka’s leadership, the Zulus were victorious in each of their battles against nativeclans. Through strategic military conquests, the Zulus were successful in uniting the various clansof southern Africa, creating the strongest African nation in the nineteenth century. The Zulu’sterritory doubled in the years of Shaka’s rule, and experienced a boom in population resultingfrom increased alliances.4 Shaka introduced a systematic reorganization of the military, andrevolutionized his army’s weaponry and military tactics. He organized the Zulu army intoregiments, and incorporated a rigid training program. The training program consisted of a newbattle formation, the “bullhorn,” designed to disrupt and encircle enemy forces. This innovativetactic increased Zulu power, and by 1820, the Zulu effectively ruled eastern South Africa.5Before discussing Shaka’s political and military achievements as applied to operationalart, better understanding of the environment and the Zulus is required. In writing this paper, itwas not possible to include each event and every individual involved in the reign of Shaka, theZulu King. The author exercised judgment to exclude many secondary events in order to providecontextual information that illuminates Shaka’s achievements as applied to operational art.Brian Roberts, The Zulu King (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1974), 41.34Ian Knight, Brave Men’s Blood: The Epic of the Zulu War (London: Greenhill Books, 1990), 54.5Donald R. Morris, The Washing of the Spears: A History of the Rise of the Zulu Nation UnderShaka and its Fall in the Zulu War of 1879 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1998), 38.4
Fortunately, many books and articles are readily accessible to assist in providing a fullunderstanding of Shaka Zulu, who many historians refer to as Africa’s “black Napoleon.”Zulu Clan before King ShakaBefore becoming an empire under Shaka’s rule, at the end of the 1700s the Zulus were asmall clan consisting of a few hundred people, known only to their immediate neighbors.6 TheZulu clan was part of a larger group of people called the Nguni (Zulu’s ancestors), who in the1600s, as part of the Bantu migrations, migrated south from central East Africa. By the mid tolate 1600s, descendants of these Bantu settlers politically and socially controlled two-fifths of theland suitable for agriculture in southern Africa.7 Two groups emerged as overlords over weakerneighboring clans: The Ndwandwe clan of Chief Zwide KaLanga to the northwest and theMthethwa clan of Chief Dingiswayo Kajobe of the southeast.8Both the Ndwandwe and Mthethwa were strong militarily, and other clans gravitatedtowards them for protection. Once the small Zulu clan migrated south, the Zulu chief, ChiefSenzangakhona, formed an alliance with the larger Mthethwa clan. At the time, the Mthethwaclan numbered 4,000 people and was firmly emplaced on good land.9 The Mthethwa controlledthe eastern portion of southern Africa until the mid-1800s when a larger clan assimilated them.Eventually, the Mthethwa clan would become the Zulu clan.Numbering no more than 1500 people, most of which were herders, the Zulus spent mostof the eighteenth century in relative insignificance.10 Daily life for the men consisted of tending6Ian J. Knight, Warrior Chiefs of Southern Africa: Shaka of the Zulu, Moshoeshoe of the Basotho,Mzilikazi of the Matabele, Maqoma of the Xhosa (New York: Sterling Publishing, 1995), 14.7Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson ed., The Frontier in History: North America and SouthAfrica Compared (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 19.8Ian Knight, The National Army Museum Book of the Zulu War (London: Pan Macmillan, 2004), 69Morris, The Washing of the Spears, 40.10Ibid., 44.5
the cattle and performing the heavier tasks around the homestead. The women were responsiblefor household duties and the cultivation of crops.11 Until the nineteenth century, the Zulus rarelytook part in warfare, which was infrequent and largely bloodless due to their small population.When disputes arose, often over grazing rights, warfare took the form of jeering and throwingspears to see which clan could throw the furthest. Once a clan was determined the winner, thedefeated clan would simply move in search of new land.12By the late eighteenth century, with the population growing, the Zulu were still a minorclan. The Zulu’s chieftain, Senzangakhona, established the Zulu throne in the years when theXhosa clans collided with the Boers to the south.13 He established an official royal court givingthe Zulus leadership greater legitimacy. He established an army, that while relatively weak,would become the starting point for his eldest (although illegitimate) son to overturn the fortunesof both the Ndwandwe and Mthethwa clans in his great military expansion.Shaka the UnwantedDespite his accomplishments, Senzangakhona’s (Figure 1) single, historical, significantaccomplishment was meeting and mating with a woman named Nandi from the small neighboringeLangeni clan.14 Their love affair culminated with the conception of a child that Senzangakhona,himself, attempted to hide, going s
trading in southern Africa since the sixteenth century and had well established outposts on the African coast. On the west coast, first the Dutch and later the British controlled the city of Cape Town. Trade was a catalyst that transformed the Zulu from a sma
