Transcription
OceanographyMarine BiologyandAn Introduction to Marine ScienceDavid W. TownsendUniversity of MaineSinauer Associates, Inc. PublishersSunderland, Massachusetts U.S.A. Sinauer Associates, Inc. This material cannot be copied, reproduced, manufacturedor disseminated in any form without express written permission from the publisher.00 TOW1eFM.indd iii3/9/12 4:28 PM
Brief ContentsChapter 1Early Foundations of the Ocean Sciences2Chapter 2Origins and Connections: Science, theUniverse, Earth, and Life 32Chapter 3The Ocean Floor: Its Formation and Evolution62Chapter 4Water: Its Chemical and Physical Properties112Chapter 5Atmospheric Circulation and Ocean Currents150Chapter 6Waves and TidesChapter 7Introduction to Life in the SeaChapter 8The Primary ProducersChapter 9The Zooplankton192226260296Chapter 10Marine Invertebrates324Chapter 11The FishesChapter 12Marine EnvironmentsChapter 13Marine Reptiles, Birds, and MammalsChapter 14Marine Fisheries and AquacultureChapter 15Human Impacts360390420458484 Sinauer Associates, Inc. This material cannot be copied, reproduced, manufacturedor disseminated in any form without express written permission from the publisher.00 TOW1eFM.indd vi3/9/12 4:28 PM
ContentsChapter 1 EarlyFoundations of theOcean Sciences 2Origins: Where Did the Earth and Its OceansCome From? 38The “Big Bang”Box 2AThe Early Ocean VoyagersThe Principles of NavigationThe problem of scale35Box 1BEarth’s Internal Structure7An Introduction to GeophysicsHeat sources and heat flow912The Challenger expeditionThe Origin of Life5615Chapter 3 The OceanFloor: Its Formation andEvolution 62192020Box 3AScientific RevolutionsContinental Drift25Growth of marine research27Chapter 2 Origins andConnections: Science,the Universe, Earth,and Life 326364An emerging suspicionEarly evidence6464A modern histor y of an old idea66Evidence begins to accumulate71Box 3B Seismographs and the RichterMagnitude Scale 73Box 3CSatellite Altimetr y76Paleomagnetism: The final proof?Ways of doing scienceOn “seeing” in science33363780Box 3D Paleomagnetism and Reversal of the Earth’sMagnetic Field 82A unifying theor y of plate tectonics33Science and technology5414Oceanography and Marine Biology: LateNineteenth to Early Twentieth Century 25What Is Science?5153Passage of seismic waves through the EarthA note on technology and sampling problemsof the times 22Fridtjof Nansen5052Refraction of seismic wavesThe Search for the Northwest PassageThe Birth of Oceanography4950Seismic waves: Two typesPost-Renaissance Ocean ExplorationBox 1D48Concepts of mass, weight, density, and buoyancy10The Magnetic Compass48Physical characteristics of Earth’s interiorComing Out of the Dark Ages:The Renaissance Europeans 13Box 1C46Chemical characteristics of Earth’s interior7Longitude and Time4345Water elsewhere in the Universe5Degrees of Latitude in terms of MilesLongitude40Origins of Earth’s waterDealing with Spherical Geometry ofthe Earth 7Box 1ARed ShiftEarly formation of planet EarthThe problem of locating one’s positionLatitude38Filling in the details8488Convection currents in the mantle: Further evidenceTectonic plate boundaries8890Other marine geological features94 Sinauer Associates, Inc. This material cannot be copied, reproduced, manufacturedor disseminated in any form without express written permission from the publisher.00 TOW1eFM.indd vii3/9/12 4:28 PM
viii ContentsMarine Sediments99Types and origins of sedimentsBox 3E100The Hjulstrom Diagram101Distribution of marine sedimentsBox 3FChapter 5 AtmosphericCirculation andOcean Currents 15098Sediment sizes and dynamics107Methods of Studying Marine Sediments108Chapter 4 Water: ItsChemical and PhysicalProperties 112Light in the SeaBeer’s Law Iz Io e–kz 153Box 5BHow to Measure Light AttenuationAtmospheric CirculationAirBox 4AAtoms and Common Sense113156The Coriolis effectWater’s liquid form123Water’s latent heat of melting and evaporationSanta Ana WindsBox 5GFrom Tropical Disturbance to HurricaneEkman currents128174176178179The major ocean gyres129180Western Boundar y CurrentsDifferent Salinities in Different Oceans131132Salinity effects on density171Box 5FOcean CirculationEquatorial currentsBox 5HTemperature effects on densityIce124126Density171126Distribution of salt in the seaBox 4BThe Jet StreamsSmaller-scale patterns (weather)Water’s phases: Liquid, solid, and gasDetermining salinity160163Global atmospheric circulation and the effectof Coriolis 167Box 5E120Water’s transparency to light156157Box 5D Mathematical Derivation of the CoriolisEffect on a Baseball 168118119Water’s high heat capacitySalinity118118Water’s great dissolving powerAvogadro’s NumberSolar heating of the Earth and atmosphere115Physical-Chemical Properties of WaterWater’s high sur face tension155155Density of air and atmospheric pressureBox 5CBasic Chemistry: Chemical Bonds151Box 5A182183The Gulf Stream183Density-driven thermohaline circulation132134Box 5IMeasuring Ocean Currents185188134Properties of Salt Water136Increasing salinity decreases heat capacityIncreasing salinity increases densityChapter 6 Wavesand Tides 192136136Increasing salinity lowers the temperatureof maximum density 136Increasing salinity depresses the freezing pointBox 4CSalt and the Sur face Melting EffectIncreasing pressure increases density139140A Word about NomenclatureVertical Structure in the OceanThe Basics of Ocean WavesCapillar y waves142The vertical structure of the ocean and thepropagation of sound waves 143195The Speed of Ocean WavesSeas and swells142193194Sur face gravity wavesBox 6ACombined effects of temperature andsalinity on density 140Box 4D137198198Formation and evolution of wind wavesSur f199203Wave inter ference204Wave refraction and diffraction, andlongshore currents 206Seiches207Tsunami (or seismic sea waves)Internal waves208210 Sinauer Associates, Inc. This material cannot be copied, reproduced, manufacturedor disseminated in any form without express written permission from the publisher.00 TOW1eFM.indd viii3/9/12 4:28 PM
Contents ixTidesBox 6BChapter 8 The PrimaryProducers 260210Understanding the forces at work212The Tide-Generating Forces216Combined influences of the Sun and MoonTides in ocean basins217218The PhytoplanktonTides in the Gulf of Maine and the Bay of FundyThe importance of tides220222The Archaea263The Bacteria263261The eukar yotic phytoplanktonChapter 7 Introductionto Life in the Sea 226Box 8A267Plankton Nomenclature Based on SizeMethods of studying phytoplankton279Harmful algal blooms and “red tides”The Basics of Marine Biology: Photosynthesisand Respiration 227Box 7APhotosynthesis and Respiration: The Basics230Box 7B Important Biologically Mediated Chemical Reactionsin the Oceans 231Nutrients and Limiting FactorsThe Macroalgae (the Seaweeds)The green algaeThe red algaeThe phosphorus cycleThe nitrogen cycle289291Box 7EChapter 9The Zooplankton233235The MeroplanktonThe Holoplankton238Measuring Primar y ProductionBox 9A241The spring phytoplankton bloom242Box 7FWinter Cooling and SinkingBox 7GThe Spectacular Spring BloomFood Chains and Food Webs297301The microzooplankton241Winter convective mixing andseasonal vertical stratification301The Microbial LoopThe crustacean zooplanktonBox 9B243The ctenophoresFactors Controlling the Distributionof Marine Organisms 249Distributions with depth311313318The chaetognaths246304Diatoms, Copepods, and TeratogenesisPlanktonic molluscs245303319The appendicularians and salpsThe ichthyoplankton320320249Chapter 10 MarineInvertebrates 324Box 7H Pressure Effects on Air Supplyfor a Scuba Diver 252Distributions with latitude253Distributions with salinity: Distance from shoreTaxonomy of Marine OrganismsBox 7I296234Box 7D Nitrogen and Phosphorus Limitationin the Sea and in Freshwater 235Upwelling286287Box 7C The Difference between Nutrients andPrimar y Production on Land and in the Ocean 233Biological Production in the Oceans281288The brown algaeSeagrasses232268Ecological challenges faced by phytoplankton:Light and nutrients 277Modern Taxonomic Structure255257254The BenthosThe sponges327327Sea anemones and corals328Br yozoa, phoronids, and brachiopods331The platyhelminthes, nemertians,and nematodes 332 Sinauer Associates, Inc. This material cannot be copied, reproduced, manufacturedor disseminated in any form without express written permission from the publisher.00 TOW1eFM.indd ix3/9/12 4:28 PM
x ContentsThe polychaete wormsBenthic molluscsEchinodermsCoral Reefs334337Box 12A342Other arthropods408Coral Bleaching412The Deep-Sea Environment345Deep-sea fish adaptationsNektonic InvertebratesThe cephalopod molluscsBox 10A352The deep-sea benthos352414Hydrothermal vent communitiesGiant and Colossal SquidChapter 13Marine Reptiles, Birds,and Mammals 420Marine Reptiles362Sea snakes421422Hagfishes363Marine iguanasLampreys363Saltwater crocodilesThe Cartilagenous FishesChimaerasSea turtles364Elasmobranchs: Sharks, skates, and rays365370374Fish propulsion374Box 11B375377430Shorebirds, raptors, and sea ducks432The sea otter433The sirenians435The pinnipeds437Walruses380Fish growth and mortalityFish migrationsScavengers, predators, and others381383The Field of Ichthyology387385439Cetaceans: The whales, dolphinsand porpoises 440Cetacean feedingWhale breathingDeep divingChapter 12 MarineEnvironments 390444Swimming speedThe rocky intertidal zone447Cetacean intelligence394The soft-bottom intertidal zone445446Whale migrations391441443Box 13A “The Bends” and Deep-DivingMarine Mammals 446EcholocationThe Intertidal Zone398437438The true sealsDetermining the Age of a Fish Using OtolithsEstuaries433Fur seals and sea lions378Fish reproduction427429Marine MammalsShoaling and schooling behaviorBox 11C372A Word on “Top” Swimming Speeds in FishesFish feedingPlunge divers425427Pursuit feeders372Osmoregulation425Sur face feedersGeneral Biology of Marine Fishes423General characteristicsBox 11A The Coelacanth: A Fish Believed To BeExtinct Turned Out Not To Be, after All 370Respiration422423Sea Birds365The Bony Fishes415356Chapter 11The Fishes 360The Jawless Fishes413414Whaling447449Some case histories451401Salt Marshes405Mangrove Forests407 Sinauer Associates, Inc. This material cannot be copied, reproduced, manufacturedor disseminated in any form without express written permission from the publisher.00 TOW1eFM.indd x3/9/12 4:28 PM
Contents xiChapter 14Marine Fisheries andAquaculture 458Fisheries Trophodynamics460A History of Commercial FisheriesTypes of fishing gear462464Principles of Fishery ScienceGrowth and mortality470470Maximum sustainable yieldRecruitment variability473474Current Status and Management ofFisheries 477Aquaculture479Chapter 15Human ImpactsMarine Pollution484486Nutrient enrichment and coastal eutrophication486Shipping, oil pollution, and nonindigenous speciesSolid wasteGlobal Climate ChangeThe greenhouse effectThe evidenceSea level491494496497499503Appendix A: Satellite RemoteSensing A–1Appendix B: El Niño and La NiñaA–5Appendix C: Exploring the Deep,Dark Ocean A–9GlossaryG–1Illustration CreditsIndexIC–1I–1 Sinauer Associates, Inc. This material cannot be copied, reproduced, manufacturedor disseminated in any form without express written permission from the publisher.00 TOW1eFM.indd xi3/9/12 4:28 PM
Chapter 7 Introduction to Life in the Sea 226 Chapter 8 The Primary Producers 260 Chapter 9 The Zooplankton 296 Chapter 10 Marine Invertebrates 324 Chapter 11 The Fishes 360 Chapter 12 Marine Environments 390 Chapter 13 Marine Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals 420 Chapter 14 Marine Fisheries and Aquaculture 458 Chapter 15 Human Impacts 484
