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Australian Journal of Teacher EducationPsychological Change and Teachers’ Self-conceptPast research has demonstrated that teaching development may exert an impact onteachers’ psychological change, and the relation between the two is shown to be bidirectional.That is, whereas teaching development can lead to teachers’ psychological change, the initialpsychological status of teaching also affects teachers’ attitudes towards teaching development(Åkerlind, 2003; Guskey, 1988; Weurlander & Stenfors-Hayes, 2008). For instance, Postareffet al. (2007) categorised 200 university lecturers into 4 groups according to the amount ofpedagogical training they attended. They found that lecturers who received the most amountof training tended to conceive teaching as helping students restructure their knowledge (i.e.,conceptual change/student-focused) and scored highest on self-efficacy in teaching. Incontrast, those who had the least amount of training were more likely to view teaching asknowledge transmission (i.e., information transmission/teacher-focused) and were also low inself-efficacy. These results suggest that teachers’ psychological change may be affected bythe amount of PD they are involved in.Teachers’ conceptions of teaching are also found to have an impact on their perceptionson PD. Åkerlind (2003) reported that university lecturers who conceived teaching asknowledge transmission activities believed that teaching development programs should helpteachers absorb new knowledge and teaching skills; whereas those who perceived teaching asrestructuring students’ existing concepts saw teaching development as a useful way tofacilitate student learning. Teachers’ psychological factors are also suggested to affect theirperceptions towards teaching development activities. Among 120 primary and secondaryschool teachers, Guskey (1988) found that teachers who had high teaching efficacy, positiveaffect towards teaching, and positive self-concept commented favourably on a one-dayteaching training on using mastery learning instructional strategies.The above literature on teaching development points to a gap in the research of whetherinvolvement in PD can affect teachers’ self-concept or not. Considering that self-concept isan important psychological factor, which “makes things happen” (Roche & Marsh, 2000, p.440), and enables “the realization of full human potential in a range of settings” (Marsh &Craven, 2006, p. 134), it is important and meaningful to include self-concept as one of theindicators in our study. Developing a positive and healthy teaching self-concept is of vitalimportance for teachers, as this may foster teachers’ motivation and confidence in teaching(Roche & Marsh, 2000), which in turn may reinforce good teaching performance, becauseself-concept and behaviours are well regarded as reciprocal and mutually enhancing (Marsh& O’Mara, 2008).In our study, we separated self-concept in general teaching and in Indigenous teaching.This was because of the multidimensional and domain specific nature of self-conceptconstruct (e.g., Lau, Yeung, Jin, & Low, 1999; Marsh, Hey, Roche, & Perry, 1997). On thebasis of previous studies testing the domain specificity of self-concept, we expect that PDactivities focusing on Indigenous education would have a significant impact only on selfconcept related to Indigenous teaching but not on self-concept in general teaching.Behavioural Change and Teaching StrategiesPast research has demonstrated that involvement in PD has an impact on teachingbehaviours, ranging from broader teaching approaches to more specific teaching techniques.There is a variation in research on how teaching behaviours are measured: including students’ratings about teaching quality, interviews with teachers, and surveys using self-reportedquestionnaires (Ho et al., 2001; Godfrey et al., 2004; Stes, Clement, & Van Petegem, 2007;Weurlander & Stenfors-Hayes, 2008).88Vol 39, 8, August 2014

Australian Journal of Teacher EducationUsing students’ rating, for example, Ho et al. (2001) examined the influence of aninnovative PD program aiming at changing teachers’ conceptions of teaching. The purposewas to test the program’s effects on the teachers’ teaching practice as judged by their studentsusing the Course Experience Questionnaire (Wilson, Lizzio, & Ramsden, 1997). The studyadopted a repeated-measures design in which the same lecturer’s teaching of the same coursewas evaluated by students before and after the PD program. The results indicated thatteachers who reported improved conceptions of teaching also displayed enhanced teachingperformance as assessed from their students’ point of view, whereas the non-change groupdid not show any improvement in teaching as rated by their students.Using teachers’ self-reporting rather than students’ rating seems be a more commonpractice in research. Synthesizing research on PD in medical education from 1980-2002,Steinert et al. (2006) reported that teachers participating in a teaching developmentintervention often reported self-perceived changes in teaching performance, such as increaseduse of new educational initiatives and designs, assessing learners’ needs, and adopting a morelearner-centred approach. In addition to changes in terms of broader teaching approaches, PDwas also found to change teachers’ specific teaching strategies. For instance, Brawner et al.(2002) used a survey to evaluate the effectiveness of a staff development program known asSUCCEED. The respondents reported that they used active and team-based learningstrategies more frequently in teaching compared to their practice prior to the program.Although these studies suggest the positive influence of PD on general teaching,empirical studies lack evidence pointing to the influence of PD on Indigenous teaching. InAustralian teaching contexts, teachers need to adapt their teaching to Indigenous students’needs so as to close the gap between Indigenous students and their non-Indigenous peers inparticipation in schooling and academic performance. Through education, there is hope toreduce the disadvantages of Indigenous Australians. However, Indigenous students may learnbetter in culture-specific ways and perceive learning quite differently (Bodkin-Andrews,Craven, Parker, Kaur, & Yeung, 2013). In our study, we examined three kinds of Indigenousteaching strategies: integrative teaching, community linking, and culture sharing. Integrativeteaching incorporates Indigenous values and perspectives into teaching. Community linkingactively seeks advice for teaching from local Indigenous community. Culture sharing asksIndigenous students to talk about their specific culture in class so that they can feel proud oftheir identity and culture. To date, no research has attempted to examine whether PD inIndigenous education would have any effect at all on these Indigenous teaching strategies.Students Learning and Engagement in LearningThe research on the impact of PD has predominantly focused on teaching. Althougheducators worldwide have shifted from a focus on teaching to an increasing emphasis onstudents’ learning, which may include learning processes and learning outcomes, there is apaucity of research on how teachers’ PD may influence learning in terms of these aspects. InHo et al.’s (2001) study, the impact of the PD program on students’ approaches to learningwas examined. Using the Approaches to Studying Inventory (Entwistle, 1994), theresearchers found that the students of teachers who changed their conceptions of teachingthrough PD also shifted from adopting surface approaches to deep approaches to facilitatinglearning. Likewise, Trigwell et al. (2012) examined the impact of a year-long certificateprogram for academic development on students’ learning at both individual and facultylevels. At the individual teacher level, students whose lecturers completed the program weremore satisfied with their learning experience after their teachers had finished the program. At89Vol 39, 8, August 2014

Australian Journal of Teacher Educationthe faculty level, in faculties where a higher proportion of lecturers completed the program,students reported higher satisfaction of their degree experience.However, there is limited research that has examined the impact of teachingdevelopment on students’ learning engagement. Learning engagement is one of the mostimportant factors in the learning process (Hattie, 2012). How to engage Indigenous studentsin learning is undoubtedly a primary aim to achieve in Australian education. Getting studentsinvolved in learning is a promising way to reduce the low retention rate and to create a senseof school belonging especially for Indigenous students who have notably lower retention andhigher absenteeism. Research has shown that engaged students tend to develop positive affectand achieve highly in academic performance (Apple & Beane, 1999; Klem & Connell, 2004;Marks, 2000; Shulman, 2002; Teese & Polsel, 2003; Zyngier, 2007). Through engaging themin school, Indigenous students’ full potential can be empowered and their academic outcomescan be improved. While previous studies have focused on the effect of PD in teaching andlearning in higher education (e.g., Ho et al., 2001; Postareff et al., 2007), whether PD hassignificant impacts on teaching and learning in school settings is unclear.Indigenous Education Officers in AustraliaIn Australian, many Indigenous students often find themselves in a conflict betweentheir life experiences and their Euroamerican school culture; and such conflict, by and large,leads to the fact that many Aboriginal children do not achieve their learning potential(Matthews et al., 2003). However, empirical evidence suggests that learning is more effectivefor Indigenous children when teaching is delivered to them in a way which incorporates theircultures, values, and ways of knowing (Matthews et al., 2003; Yunkaporta, 2009). Matthewset al. (2003) reviewed and discussed the benefits of five innovative mathematics programs,which were designed to benefit Indigenous students living in the state of NSW. In anotherstudy, Yunkaporta (2009) instructed Australian Indigenous children by using a way whichwas familiar to the children in that community. Through an appropriate infusion ofcommunity knowledge and academic knowledge, the students taught by Yunkaporta achieveda higher level of academic success than those taught by other teachers. Hence although wemay not assume that all Indigenous students will benefit from Indigenous-relevant input,evidence did seem to point to this likelihood.In order to facilitate an infusion of Indigenous community knowledge in schools, theNSW Department of Education and Communities has set up a special program, whichallocates Indigenous education officers known as Aboriginal Education Officers (AEOs) toschools in order to “work closely with teachers to develop culturally appropriate resourcesand programs” so that Indigenous education can be promoted, and Indigenous children andparents can be encouraged and supported. As described in Education and Communities, NSWGovernment (2013), the function of the AEOs is as follows:AEOs work with teachers to assist Aboriginal students achieve theirpotential and keep the Aboriginal community informed of students’progress and achievements, and of things like parent meetings, schoolactivities, new programs and other changes. AEOs provide rolemodels for Aboriginal students and have a positive impact on helpingthem achieve their potential.Having the AEOs work with in-service teachers is deemed to be important because thereality is that a large number of Australian in-service teachers are not well prepared forteaching Indigenous students (Craven, 2005). Cooperation with the AEOs is believed to resultin enabling Indigenous students’ to reach their full potential. In summary, the AEOs play90Vol 39, 8, August 2014

Australian Journal of Teacher Educationmultiple roles: as facilitators for teachers in curricula development, as assistants forIndigenous students in learning, and as informants to keep parents and communities informed.Notwithstanding the proposed functions of the AEOs, the actual impact of theavailability of AEOs on teachers’ perceptions of Indigenous teaching and student engagementhas not been examined. In the present study, the impact of AEOs on both Indigenous teachingand learning are explored together with teachers’ PD in Indigenous education using multipleindicators for more accurate assessments of effects.In a recent review of AEOs in the state of Western Australia, both quantitative surveysand qualitative interviews with principals, teachers, and AEOs were conducted. Thequantitative surveys reported that almost 80% of the principals and teachers who participatedin the review believed that the AEO program was successful; whereas the remaining 20% ofthe principals and teachers did not consider the AEO program effective. The qualitativeinterviews identified different reasons for their perceived ineffectiveness from principals’,teachers’, and AEOs’ perspectives. The teachers listed that “time constraints, cultural issues,a lack of skills and formal education” were some major concerns for the effectiveimplementation of AEO programs, whereas principals believed that the key to success inimplementing the AEO programs is through networking, mentoring, and a quality process forrecruiting the AEOs (Gower et al., 2011, p. iii). Conversely, AEOs reported that someteachers may not know how to work effectively with them and there was a lack of inductionprograms (Gower et al., 2011). Due to the lack of a similar study in the state of NSW whereour study was conducted, there is a need to observe more closely the effect of having AEOsin Indigenous teaching and learning. As the participants in the Gower et al. (2011) studyshowed mixed perceptions of the AEO program, it is unclear whether AEOs would havepositive effects on Indigenous teaching or learning.The Present StudyAdopting a multiple indicator approach, the present study examined the impact offrequency of PD in Indigenous teaching and availability of AEOs on six variables: teachers’teaching self-concept (Indigenous teaching and general teaching), Indigenous teachingstrategies (i.e., integrative teaching, community linking, and culture sharing), and Indigenousstudents’ learning engagement in Australian NSW rural and urban primary schools. Anoverarching research question is: What is the impact of frequency of PD in Indigenousteaching and the availability of AEOs on the six variables? As our aim is to use multipleindicators to examine the effect, a multiple-indicator-multiple-indicator-cause (MIMIC)approach to structural equation modelling was adopted (see Yeung, Taylor, Hui, LamChiang, & Low, 2012). The advantage of this approach is to more accurately assess theeffects of PD or AEO, and an interaction of both, on the six latent variables by accounting formeasurement errors. From the previous literature on teaching development, we expected thathigher frequency of participation in PD in Indigenous teaching would have positive effects onmost variables: more positive Indigenous teaching self-concept, more frequent application ofIndigenous teaching strategies, and higher level of learning engagement of Indigenouschildren. Based on the domain-specific nature of self-concept, we also hypothesized thatfrequency of PD with an Indigenous education focus would not have any effect on teachers’self-concept in general teaching. For the effect of the availability of AEOs, given no definiteevidence is available from previous research, no specific hypothesis could be formulated.91Vol 39, 8, August 2014

Australian Journal of Teacher EducationMethodParticipantsThe study was conducted in 52 primary schools randomly selected across the urbanand rural areas of NSW, Australia. Two hundred and eight teachers, whose class had variousnumbers of Indigenous students participated in the study. Among them 45 were males(21.63%) and 163 were females (78.37%). The teaching qualifications and teachingexperiences of the participants were diverse. Among them, 33 had a Diploma in Education,72 a Bachelor of Education, 34 had both a Bachelor of Teaching and a Diploma inEducation, 17 graduated with Double Degrees, and 52 had other qualifications. Teachingexperiences ranged from less than 1 year to 41 years: approximately 24% had teachingexperience less than 5 years; 16.4% had been teachers for 6-10 years; 17.3% had taughtbetween 11 to 20 years, 27.4% for 21-30 years, and 11.1% had taught more than 31 years.InstrumentThe instrument for data collection was a questionnaire, which started with a section ondemographic information including sex, types of teaching qualifications, and years ofteaching followed by a section on participation of Indigenous teaching PD and a Yes/Noquestion on the availability of AEOs; a section on teaching self-concept (including selfconcept in Indigenous teaching and general teaching); a section on Indigenous teachingstrategies; and a section on Indigenous students’ learning engagement. The items in allsections were randomised to avoid response bias. In the following, the items of each sectionare explained further, and sample items are listed in the Appendix.Indigenous PD and Availability of AEOsPD is a series of 5 items surveying the participation in Indigenous PD activities, whichare designed to develop professional knowledge, skills, and understanding of how to supporteffective teaching and learning for Indigenous students. The PD activities may vary in termsof formality. It can be attending formal training on understanding broadly Indigenous cultures,informal workshops for learning specific Indigenous teaching strategies (e.g., acceleratedliteracy teaching for Indigenous students and a program known as Count Me in TooIndigenous for teaching numeracy to Indigenous students), or school-based professionallearning such as mentoring programs and classroom observations. The items of PD asked thete

Australian Catholic University, Alexander.Yeung@acu.edu.au Feifei Han Australian Catholic University, Feifei.Han@acuedu.au This Journal Article is posted at Research Online. . not all pre-service teacher education degrees offer a course on Indigenous Studies or Indigenous Education. As a result, many pre-service teachers are found