WIXLIB

home was done by muscle power—ifyou had it—and grit if you didn’t, thechange to cooking, cleaning, washingand ironing with electricity . . . is almost“As a child I learned practical rules about electricity. Onebeyond comprehension,” she said.does not begin a baking project in a thunderstorm withAt the end of World War II, onlyan electric cookstove. When a lightning strike makes theabout half of Montana’s farms andphone jangle, don’t answer. When black clouds boil overrural areas had electricity supplied bythe horizon, unplug the television . . . No one dependeda power company. Many farm famion electricity for heat, and no one threw away the lanternslies generated their own electricity withor tore down the outhouse when it arrived.”windmills or gas-powered generators.—JUDY BLUNT, WHO GREW UP ON A PHILLIPS COUNTYRANCH IN THE 1960SIn the 1930s the governmentestablished the Rural ElectrificationAdministration, which provided loans to bring electricity into ruralAmerica. But private power companies like Montana Power did notFIGURE 20.6: Telephones helped ruralwant to build power lines into rural areas or across rugged terrain.families spread news and informationPeople lived too far apart, and there were too few rural customers toinstantly among neighbors who lived farapart. This ranch woman on the Circlemake it profitable.U Ranch might have been checking on aSo farmers and ranchers got together and did the work themselves.sick neighbor, phoning in a grocery order,or simply listening in on the party line.They formed rural electric cooperatives (companies that are owned bythe people who use them). These cooperativesgot their own loans and built power lines toplaces like Geraldine and Alzada.By the 1970s you could switch on lights,electric irons, water pumps, and washingmachines in almost every rural householdin Montana. And with electricity came yardlights, hot water heaters, electric water pumps,and indoor toilets.One Does Not Begin a BakingProject in a ThunderstormTelephones Make New ConnectionsMost Montana towns had telephone serviceafter 1910, but it took much longer for phonelines to reach out into the country. In 1945only 20 percent of Montana’s rural households had telephones. Farmers and rancherswere eager for phone service, which wouldconnect them to people far away.Starting in the 1940s, rural communitiesformed telephone cooperatives that workedthe same way electric cooperatives did, andoften used the same utility poles. By 1970almost every rural Montana household had aphone on the wall.Most rural phone lines were “party lines,”400PART 4: THE MODERN MONTANA

which meant that several families shared the same line.When a call came through, the phone would ring inall the houses on the line. Each party had a separatering pattern so everyone knew whom the call was for.Often they all picked up anyway and listened in on oneanother’s calls. People knew not to say anything on thephone that they did not want neighbors to hear.“Television transformed Americansocial habits . . . When a popularshow was on, all the toilets in thenation flushed at the same time,during commercial breaks andwhen the program ended.—STEVE GILLON, BOOMER NATION (2004)Radio and Television:Tuning in to the World“”Back in 1954 and 1955, we would clear everything off the air to accommodate the World’sSeries games. As we had no other way of gettingthese network shows in, we would film the gamesright off a picture tube in Fargo, North Dakota,and fly the films to Great Falls on National Guardplanes, hoping we didn’t lose too much time.Television connected Montanansto the rest of the world in awhole new way. They could seefootage of important events thathappened far away—like the assassination of President John F.Kennedy in 1963 and the firstwalk on the moon in 1969. As—W. C. “BUD” BLANCHETTE, MANAGER OF KFBB-TV, GREAT FALLSthe 1960s progressed, closeup images of the Vietnam War on the evening news deeply affectedeveryone.The first commercial TV stations started broadcasting in New Yorkin 1941. But until the 1950s Montanans could see television only if theytraveled somewhere else. In 1953 KXLF-TV of Butte became Montana’sfirst commercial TV station. Soon stations in Billings, Missoula, andGreat Falls were broadcasting the evening news and two or three hoursof locally produced programs. Montanans raced to the store to buytelevisions. They hung coat hangers and bed springs out their windowsto serve as antennas.Television and radio gave Montanans access to outside news reports.Until 1959 the Anaconda Company owned all the daily newspapersin every major city except Great Falls. Radio and television newscastsmeant that the Company no longer controlled how Montanans got theirnews. In 1959 the Anaconda Company sold its chain of papers.”More Women Went to WorkAmerica’s new prosperity changed people’s lifestyles. More womenbegan to work outside the home during this period than at any othertime in U.S. history. In 1940 about 16 percent of Montana’s working-agewomen held jobs. By 1960 more than 30 percent were working.Some women went to work to help pay for their families’ homes,cars, and televisions. Some found work more fulfilling than stayinghome. And some had to work to feed their families.Working women changed family life, towns, and the economy of20 — BUILDING A NEW MONTANA4 01

Montana. They owned and drove cars and bought more consumeritems. They even changed what their families ate. Women began buyingprepared foods like chicken pot pies (developed in 1951) and fast-cookrice (developed in 1950) because they had less time to prepare familymeals. Fast-food restaurants appeared in the 1950s for the working families who could afford to eat out.Some farm women moved into town for the week to work andcame home to the farm on weekends. But there were not many jobopportunities besides farm work for women in rural Montana. Mostrural Montanans—both men and women—continued to support theirfamilies on what they could raise on their farms and ranches.The Youth Culture Is BornFIGURE 20.7: Young Montanans enjoyednew activities together like roller skating,bowling, and just hanging out. Here theSpinning Marvels perform at the MariasFair in Shelby in 1958.In town, middle-class teenagers enjoyed new freedoms that came withcars and pocket money. Teens gathered at burger joints and at secludedspots on the edge of their town just to be together away from adults.The mass media (communication technologies that can reach millions of people) like television and radio helped create a music industryaimed just at young people. Transistor radios (small, portable radiosthat run on batteries), invented in the 1950s, gave young people theirfirst opportunity to tune into their own music away from the family living room. Teenagers in Montana and across the country listened to newsounds like rock and roll. A youth culture emerged—a feeling amongurban young people that they had more in commonwith one another than with older people, even in theirown families or communities.Montana EconomyFalls BehindIn 1950 thousands of Montanans held high-payingindustrial jobs. Most industrial workers belonged tolabor unions. The average Montanan earned 8 percentmore in per-capita income (the average annual income per person) than other Americans.But as America’s great boom continued, the national economy grew much faster than Montana’s.Montana was too far from major markets to attractthe booming factories that other states had. Montana’seconomy fell behind.By 1968 Montanans earned 14 percent less than thenational average. One reason was that other states’ industries were booming. Another reason was that twoof Montana’s most important industries—copper andthe railroads—changed dramatically.402PART 4: THE MODERN MONTANA

From Hard-Rock Miningto the Berkeley Pit“When you graduated from high school, youwere assured of three gifts. Some benevolent[generous] person in your family would give youa lunch bucket, somebody else would give you athermos, and you could go down on the smelterroad and get a slip and go to work. Everybodywent to work for the Company.The biggest changes happenedat the Anaconda Company.Anaconda emerged from WorldWar II a huge and powerful company. With mines in Montanaand Chile, it was the largest pro—HOWIE ROSENLEAF, AN ANACONDA SMELTER WORKER IN THE 1950Sducer of copper in the world. Itwas also Montana’s single largestemployer, providing jobs for thousands of workers across the state—2,500 at the Anaconda smelter alone. In 70 years Anaconda Copper hadearned 2.5 billion from Montana’s natural resources.But by the 1950s most of Anaconda’s profits came from Chile.Montana produced only 15 percent of the company’s copper. SoAnaconda shifted its attention away from Montana. It began to phase outunderground mining, which targeted high-grade copper veins and required thousands of skilled miners. In 1955 it began open-pit mining(removing low-grade ore using huge earth-moving equipment). Thiswas the birth of Butte’s Berkeley Pit.FIGURE 20.8: Butte’s Berkeley PitOpen-pit mining transformed both the land and the labor force ofswallowed up neighborhoods and toreat people’s sense of community. DumpButte. Thousands of hard-rock miners lost their jobs; most moved away.trucks removing dirt from the pit buriedButte lost population and political power. And as the pit expanded, itthe McQueen neighborhood’s HolySavior School.consumed part of Butte, too.”20 — BUILDING A NEW MONTANA403

“In the four years I spent traveling back and forth toMalta High School, the population of our community had dwindled by a third as the smaller, moremarginal places were absorbed by their larger neighbors . . . Overnight, it seemed, the place I grew upon had fallen under the wheels of big business—bigland, big leases, big machines. Big debt.Fewer Jobsfor MontanansThe railroads also becamemore mechanized (withmachines doing work previously done by people) andemployed fewer people. Inthe 1960s railroads began—JUDY BLUNT, WHO GREW UP ON A PHILLIPS COUNTY RANCH IN THE 1960Sto lose business to the interstate trucking industry.Traffic shifted away from railroads. More people traveled by car. Firstrailroads decreased passenger and freight service. Then they stoppedrunning branch lines to small towns.In 1970 the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, and the Chicago,Burlington and Quincy railroads merged (combined) into one company. A few years later the Milwaukee Road shut down. The railroadsthat had once dominated Montana’s transportation began to fade.FIGURE 20.9: American Indians andThe decline of the railroads had a double impact on Montana’s econmigrant workers who used to travelacross the state to work at harvest timeomy. Thousands of well-paid railroad workers in small towns across thefound they could not compete with large,state lost their jobs. And many towns that the new interstates did notefficient machines like these combines,reach lost their major transportation service.photographed in the 1960s near Helena.”Moving from Farm to Town,from East to WestAgriculture became more mechanized, too.Larger machinery meant fewer people couldoperate larger farms and ranches. Big operationsbought up their smaller neighbors. The averagefarm grew larger, but fewer families made theirliving off the land.Over time more rural Montanans moved tothe cities. Billings, Missoula, Bozeman, and GreatFalls expanded rapidly. By 1950 Great Falls—notButte—was Montana’s biggest city. The large,spread-out eastern counties lost many of theirpeople—and remain lightly populated today.Meanwhile, more Montanans moved awayto seek better opportunities elsewhere. Theyfound high-paying jobs in steel plants inUtah, electronics industries in Colorado, andairplane plants in Seattle. Most of the peoplewho moved were young adults just out of highschool or college. This increased the average ageof Montana’s population.404PART 4: THE MODERN MONTANA

Two Communities Grow“Community life is hard, but you know you’llnever have to peel potatoes by yourself.”Two important Montana communitiesdid grow during the postwar years:—SUSIE WALDNER, A MEMBER OF DUNCAN RANCH HUTTERITE COLONY, NEAR HARLOWTONthe Mexican American communitiesof Billings and Laurel, and Montana’s Hutterite colonies.Mexicans began moving to Montana in the 1920s to work in theeastern Montana sugar beet fields and at the Great Western SugarCompany factory in Billings. After World War II, Great Western recruitedeven more Mexicans and Mexican Americans to work in the fields andat the plant. Their labor—along with the work of Northern CheyenneFIGURE 20.10: Sugar beet productionlaborers—helped turn Great Western into the largest sugar manufacturerdepended on migrant workers fromin the United States.Mexico like this young boy, photographed in the lower YellowstoneMexican Americans often faced racism and segregation. They had toValley. All family members joined insit in separate sections in movie theaters and sometimes at school. Somethe backbreaking labor of thinning,cultivating, and harvesting sugar beets.restaurants refused to serve them. Yet Montana’s Mexican Americancommunities grew and steadily fought forsocial change and equal rights.In contrast, Montana’s Hutteritespreferred to separate themselves from mainstream (majority) society. Hutterites aremembers of a religious community formedin Europe in the 1500s. They share all theirresources, live simply, and center their liveson work and church.Hutterites moved to the American Plainsin the 1870s. They refused to fight in WorldWar I because their religion forbids goingto war. Other Americans treated Hutteritesbadly for these beliefs, driving many of themnorth into Alberta, Canada. In 1942 Albertapassed a law prohibiting Hutterites from buying more land. So several Hutterite coloniesmoved into Montana. By 2007 the Hutteriteshad built more than 40 colonies here.Hutterites sometimes face intolerancebecause they live much differently thanother Americans do. As Paul Hofer of theGolden Valley Colony (near Ryegate) said,“It’s a very, very simple life compared to theoutside world. We try to stay away fromit all and stay private as much as we can.”Yet Montana’s Hutterite colonies welcomevisitors and commonly cooperate withtheir neighbors on irrigation projects andland issues.20 — BUILDING A NEW MONTANA405

A New U.S. Indian PolicyLife changed on Indian reservations in the 1950s and 1960s.American Indians bought cars and farm machinery. Battery-poweredradios and televisions connected Indian households with mainstreamsociety. But while America boomed, many Indian reservations remainedin poverty.Most Indian military veterans could not take advantage of the GI Billbecause banks did not lend money to build houses on reservations. FewIndians left the reservations to go to college—some colleges did not evenaccept Indians. So the government encouraged Indian people to moveto towns and cities.Some government leaders decided that the problem was the reservation system. They thought it would be better to dissolve Indianreservations (land reserved by tribes for their own use) and encourageIndian people to move to booming towns and cities where they couldget high-paying jobs. As a result Congress changed its policy towardAmerican Indians once again.We have already learned that throughout U.S. history the governmenthas shifted between two completely different policies toward AmericanIndians. One acknowledges Indian tribes as sovereign (independentand self-governing) nations inhabiting their own lands. Under thisapproach the U.S. government made treaties (agreements betweengovernments) with Indian tribes (see Chapter 7).The other approach, which is quite the opposite, sees AmericanIndians as an ethnic group within the U.S. population. Under thisapproach the government periodically has tried to dissolve Indian tribesand to assimilate (absorb) Indian people into mainstream society. TheDawes Act of 1887 was one example of this policy (see Chapter 11).In the 1930s the government returned some powers of self-governmentto tribes and tried to encourage tribal cultures to strengthen (see Chapter 18).In 1953 the government changed its policyHow can we plan our future when the again. Congress decided to end, or terminate,Indian Bureau threatens to wipe us out as its special relationship with some Indiana race? It is like trying to cook a meal in tribes. The government called this policyyour tipi when someone is standing out- termination (the end of something).The government selected specific tribesside trying to burn the tipi down.to terminate. The plan was to withdraw—EARL OLD PERSON, BLACKFEET TRIBAL CHAIRMAN AND CHIEFfederal support from these tribes, abolishtheir tribal governments, sell offI think of the Indian people who have been on tribal lands, and end all treaty(tribal rights established byrelocation and have come back home. I think rightstreaty). In Montana, Congress tar. . . perhaps you come back with more courage, geted the tribes on the Blackfeet,and more determined to make things better.Flathead, Fort Belknap, and FortPeck Reservations for termination.—CAROL JUNEAU, MANDAN-HIDATSA STATE SENATOR FROM THE BLACKFEET RESERVATION““406””PART 4: THE MODERN MONTANA

Indian tribes everywhere resisted termination. They were trying tobuild an economic future. They did not want tribal lands sold off, theirtribal identity destroyed, and their community ties broken.Tribal leaders on the Flathead Reservation organized a steadyprotest and finally convinced Montana’s U.S. senators James E. Murrayand Mike Mansfield to work hard on their behalf. While 61 tribes nationwide were terminated, Montana’s tribes fought successfully to survive.The government did not terminate any Montana tribes. But it didshut down reservation schools, medical clinics, and other services. After200 years of shifting federal policy, American Indians once again had tofight for the right to maintain their tribal identity.Relocation: Indians Were Paid to Move AwayAt the same time, the Bureau of Indian Affairs paid for 100,000 AmericanIndians to relocate (move) from their reservations, where there wereno jobs, to cities where there were jobs. Many of Montana’s Indiansleft their reservations for Butte,Great Falls, and Billings. Othersmoved to cities like Chicagoand Los Angeles.The relocation programhad one unexpected result:it brought many youngIndians of all tribes togetherin American cities duringthe 1960s. Social and politicalchanges were sweeping thenation. Instead of disappearing into mainstream society,Indian people of all tribesbanded together. As Blackfeeteducator Stan Juneau said,“We almost became anurban tribe.” Instead ofdiscarding Indian cultures,American Indians organizedto strengthen them.The termination and relocation programs ended in 1968.After that, a series of ref

Korean War 1953 Termination becomes offi cial federal Indian policy 1953 Montana's fi rst television station broadcasts from Butte 1951 1955 Williston Basin oil fi eld discovered in eastern Montana Open-pit mining begins in Butte 1959 Anaconda Company sells its newspapers 1956 Congress passes Federal Highway Act