Transcription
1.2.The BasicsTalking about Morphemesoo3.4.5.GeneralAffixesHierarchical StructureMorphophonologyCoining New Words
Definition: the study of word structure Morphology is part of the grammar. Contains rules and constraints for forming words.o un lady like / un husband likeo boy ish / *ish boyo boy ish ness / *boy ness ish
Words are built up of one or more morphemes.o deactivate: de - act - ive - ate A morpheme is any of the minimal units of speech whichcarry a meaning or functiono appleo theo -s (plural)o -ed (past tense)o -ate (creates verbs)o .
Morphemes are stored in the lexicon. Morphemes consist of a form and a meaning or function.‘water’form /wɑtɹ/meaning H2O‘for’form /foʊɹ/function marks the following noun phrase as a beneficiary
Do not confuse morphemes with sound sequences.spellingphonological /‘in the direction of’two/tu/‘2’o too, to, and two are different morphemes
Do not confuse morphemes with sound sequences.spellingphonological s/z/(possession)o two dog-so the dog begso the dog’s tail(plural)(subject agreement)(possession)
All morphemes are either free or bound. A free morpheme can appear on its owno cato loveo appleo paint A bound morpheme cannot appear on its owno -nesso bio -isto lingu-
Some words contain only bound morphemeso linguist lingu ist Some bound morphemes appear in one word onlyo cranberry cran berryo lukewarm luke warm
Some words contain more than one free morpheme.o Compounds: roof-top, book-store
All words contain a root. The root carries the word’s principal meaning. The root may or may not be able to stand alone. Free: Bound:paintlingu-(‘painter’, ‘painting’, ‘painted’)(‘linguist’, ‘bilingual’)
Affixes are bound morphemes. Affixes are used heavily in many languages to form forms. There are four types of affixes:1.2.3.4.PrefixesSuffixesInfixesCircumfixes
Prefix – attaches to beginning of a stemundeimex- un dode portim portex portSuffix – attaches to end of a stem-ness-ly-ite-erkind nessquick lyWisconsin itesing er(representin’)
Infix – inserted inside another morpheme-fuckin-iz(n)-ma- abso fuckin lutelyb iz itch; sh iz(n) itsophisti ma catedThink about the word de act ive ate. Why isn’t iveconsidered an infix?
Circumfix - two parts, one part precedes and one partfollows a stemo Rare in English (e.g. a-(verb)-ing) Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, Old time is still a-flying He’s a-comin’ alright.o German past tense: ge-.-t kauf ‘buy’ ge-kauf-t ‘bought
Words have a hierarchical structureMeaning is related to the structureExample: ‘unlockable’Unable to be lockedAble to be unlocked
Even with one meaning, there is hierarchy.o Example: unsystematically
Morphophonology refers to the interaction betweenmorphology and phonology. The combination of morphemes often triggers phonologicalprocesses.o e.g. the English plural morphemebook s books/bʊk/ /z/ [bʊkz] [bʊks]
Example - English plural morpheme iation of agematchbadge[əz]
cabcadbaglovelathecamcanbangcallbarspaboyshared featurepronunciationof ʒ]sibilant[əz]vowel voiced sibilant
Assume /z/ is underlying pronunciation of the pluralmorpheme, how do we derive the other forms?We write rules! Review:[əz] after sibilants[s] after voiceless nonsibilants[z] after voiced nonsibilants
Schwa Insertion Rule/z/ [əz] / sibilant #( indicates a morpheme boundary, while # indicates a word boundary)e.g. buses /bʌs z/ [bʌsəz] Assimilation Rule/z/ voiceless / Cvoiceless #e.g. cats /kæt z/ [kæts]
All rules apply to all forms.Rules must be ordered properly to derive correct form.e.g. ‘buses’mentalrepresentation/bʌs z/mentalrepresentation/bʌs z/1. assimilation2. schwa insertionphonetic form[bʌss][bʌsəs]*[bʌsəs]1. schwa insertion2. assimilationphonetic form[bʌsəz][bʌsəz]
mental rep.1. schwa insertion2. assimilationphonetic form/kæt z/[kæts][kæts]mental rep.1. schwa insertion2. assimilationphonetic form/bæg z/[bægz]
singularplural1st personI walkwe walk2nd personyou walkyou walk3rd persons/he walksthey walkWhat do we know about the pronunciation of the3rd person singular -s?
hared featurepronunciationof ibilant[əz]vowel voiced sibilant
The previous rule applies to three morphemes:o the plural morpheme /z/o the agreement morpheme /z/o the possessive morpheme /z/ Can [s] never follow a voiced consonant in the samesyllable?o chance [tʃæns]
Do we memorize plural forms separately, or do we reallyhave rules in our grammars? Wug Tests provide evidence of the existence of rules:o What are the plural forms of the following:blickdoogglicktash
Another Morphophonolology Example:Yoruba‘stop’‘press sh‘incomplete’ fect’ ling’[ŋkuro][ntɛjɔnrin][mbadʒɛ]
We build new words through various processes:o affixation, reduplication, compounding, blending, alternation,suppletion, reduction, back formation We also add new words, or alter/extend the meanings ofexisting words, in various ways:o borrowings, eponyms, functional shift, semantic shift
Affixation – attaching affixes-er bank bankerrun ul-ey ka-si-keyss-sup-ni-kkaSeoul-to go-SH-FUT-AH-IN-Q‘Are you going to Seoul?’SH subject honorific, FUT future, AH addressee honorific, IN indicative mood, Q question
Reduplication – duplicating all or part of a wordo generally not productive in English bling-bling, pee-pee, poo-poo, no-no itsy-bitsy, teeny-weeny, hokey-pokey, super-duper fancy-shmancy, facts-shmactso Forms plurals in Kupangese (a dialect of Malay) anak ‘child’ anak-anak ‘children’
compounding - combining words into one, without changingthe form of either part bittersweet, homework, sleepwalko The meaning can be different from the sum of the parts blackboard, bigwig blends (portmanteaux) - combining words into one, whilechanging the form of at least one parto smog (smoke fog), urinalysis (urine analysis)
alternations - altering some part of the word to modify itsmeaningsing - sang - sungman - menbreath (n.) - breathe (v.) suppletion - a single morpheme has one or more formswhich are distinct from the rootis - wasgo - wentgood - better
Reductiono clipping: cutting off part of a word to make it shorterhippo, prof, gym, faxo acronyms: abbreviations using the first letter of several wordsNASA, UNICEF, RAM, ROM, RADAR, CEO, AIDS, SARS
back formations: words due to incorrect analogieso due to resemblance to known morphemesburgereditpeddle(from hamburger, from the German city Hamburg)(from editor)(from peddler)
Borrowings - words/expressions borrowed from otherlanguagessushifaux pasburritomachokaraokekangaroo
eponyms: words from namesKleenex, google, Xerox, denim
functional shift - a word of one grammatical categorybecomes usable as another categoryKinko’s: ‘The new way to office.’‘to message someone’ (origins: instant messaging)‘to medal’ (i.e. win a medal)
semantic shift - a word comes to have a new meaning.hawks and doves (political, origins in Vietnam War)mousesweet
Definition: the study of word structure Morphology is part of the grammar. Contains rules and constraints for forming words. o un lady like / un husband like o boy ish / *ish boy o boy ish ness / *boy ness ish Words are built up of one or more morphemes.
