WIXLIB

Remindus of other words that have–ing ending: working, eating,talking, etc Other compounds of teach: teacher,taught, teaches Other words with similar meaningand form: tutor, mentor, lecturer Words different in both form andmeaning: chalk, whiteboardJuly 27, 2012intro2ling/ts/200814

syntagmaticSyntagmatic relation holds betweenthe successive members of a givenchaine.g:If I have moneyI will buy a carOne of the books is July 27, 2012intro2ling/ts/200815

Noam ChomskyJuly 27, 2012intro2ling/ts/200816

Noam Chomsky inthe past received various deaththreats because of his criticisms ofU.S foreign policy. statedthat he continues to reside inthe United States because hebelieves it remains the "greatestcountry in the world,"July 27, 2012intro2ling/ts/200817

Syntactic structures The theory takes utterances (sequences ofwords) to have a syntax which can be(largely) characterized by a formalgrammar; in particular, a Context-freegrammar extended with transformationalrules.A phrase/sentence has its internalstructureJuly 27, 2012intro2ling/ts/200818

Childrenare hypothesized to have aninnate knowledge of the basicgrammatical structure common to allhuman languages (i.e. they assumethat any language which theyencounter is of a certain restrictedkind). Thisinnate knowledge is oftenreferred to as universal grammar.July 27, 2012intro2ling/ts/200819

Generative grammarThe Chomskyan approach towards syntaxis often termed generative grammar Chomskyan syntactic analyses are oftenhighly abstract, and are based heavily oncareful investigation of the borderbetween grammatical and ungrammaticalconstructs in a language. Such grammatical judgments can only bemade accurately by a native speaker, July 27, 2012intro2ling/ts/200820

Introduction to LinguisticsWeek 5September 20, 2007intro to ling/ts/20071

PhoneticsDescription of SoundsSeptember 20, 2007intro to ling/ts/20072

Definition the study of speech sounds and theirphysiological production and acousticqualitiesSeptember 20, 2007intro to ling/ts/20073

Fields articulatory phonetics deals with the configurations of the vocal tract used toproduce speech sounds; studies the physiologicalmechanisms of speech production acoustic phonetics measuring and analyzing the physical properties ofsound waves we produce when we speak auditory phonetics studies speech sounds in terms how we hear them linguistic phonetics the manner of combining sounds so as to makesyllables, words, and sentencesSeptember 20, 2007intro to ling/ts/20074

Units of Representation Feature: subunit of segment, reflects individualaspect of articulatory control produced byarticulation Segment: individual speech sound Syllable: a segment of speech that consists of avowel, with or without one or moreaccompanying consonant sounds immediatelypreceding or followingSeptember 20, 2007intro to ling/ts/20075

Phonetic Transcription IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) represents each sound of human speechwith a single symbole.g. [ə] ; [θ]Why do we need the IPA?September 20, 2007intro to ling/ts/20076

We need a system for recording speechsounds accurately. English spelling isvery inconsistent. Same sound [i], different letterse.g. see, sea, scene, receive, thief, amoeba,machine Same letters, different soundse.g. sign [s], pleasure [ʒ], resign [z] One sound, multiple letterse.g. lock [k], that [ð], book [ʊ], boast [o], shop [ʃ] One letter, multiple soundse.g. exit [gz], use [ju] Silent letterse.g. know, doubt, though, islandSeptember 20, 2007intro to ling/ts/20077

Sound ClassesBased on the phonetic properties shared: Vowels Consonants GlidesSeptember 20, 2007intro to ling/ts/20078

English ssvoicedApproximantvoicelessvoicedSeptember 20, ltdnfvθðVelarGlottalkgŋszʃʒčǰhʍwrintro to ling/ts/2007lj9

English ed Unrounded Unrounded axæSeptember 20, 2007ʌɑintro to ling/ts/200710

Figure out the differences betweenconsonants and vowels in the followingwords. September 20, 2007take – abovecart – atthink – uglybell – openfeel – eelintro to ling/ts/200711

Major DifferencesConsonantsVowels syllabic non syllabic are produced with are produced with arelatively littlenarrow or completeobstruction in the vocalclosure in the vocaltract (-obstruent)tract ( obstruent) are more sonorous are less sonorous( sonorant)(-sonorant)September 20, 2007intro to ling/ts/200712

Glides Shows properties of both consonants andvowels rapidly articulated vowels vowel-like in articulation pattern/function as consonants Sometimes are called semivowel andsemiconsonante.g. yet; wetSeptember 20, 2007intro to ling/ts/200713

Introduction to LinguisticsWeek 61July 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Phonology: Sound Arrangement2July 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Definition 3the sound system of a language; the component of agrammar which includes the inventory of sounds(phonetic and phonemic units) and rules for theircombination and pronunciation; the study of thesound systems of all languagesJuly 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Scope 4Phonetics -- What are the sounds? How are theymade in the mouth?Phonology -- How do sounds combine? How arethey memorized?Speaker's Mind Speaker's Mouth Listener'sEar Listener's MindJuly 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Phonemes 5the phonetic alphabet of the mind how we mentally represent speech; how we storethe sounds of words in our memory.the phonetic alphabet is universal (we can writedown the speech sounds actually uttered in anylanguage)e.g. [θ]the phonemic alphabet varies from language tolanguagee.g. /θ/July 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Finding Phonemes How do we find out what's in someone's mind? Howdo we figure out how people store the sounds ofwords in their memories? look for minimal pairs of words pair of words that have different meanings andwhich differ in only one sound (the difference insounds is significant, and so the two sounds mustboth be phonemes)6July 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Examples7 [sɪp] and [zɪp] /s/ and /z/ [ræm] and [ræn] and [ræŋ] /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/ [bit], [bɪt], [bet], [bɛt], [bæt], [but], [bot], [bɔt], [bʌt]July 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Allophones a predictable phonetic variant of a phonemee.g., [ p ] and [ ph ] (aspirated p) of the phoneme / p /in English 8Other examples: brew – prow; drip - tripJuly 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Complementary Distribution 9a relation between two speech sounds such that eachoccurs in one or more positions where the other onenever doestwo sounds that are phonetically similar and that are incomplementary distribution are usually allophones ofthe same phonemee.g. voiced [ph] always occurs when it is the syllableonset and followed by a stressed vowel pinvoiceless [p] occurs in all other situations spinJuly 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Sound CombinationsIn English, a word begins with threeconsonant-type phonemes always obeysthree strict rules: 10First phoneme: /s/Second phoneme: /p/, /t/, /k/Third phoneme: /l/, /r/July 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Free Variation alternative pronunciations of a word in which onesound is substituted for another without changing theword's meaninge.g., pronunciation of "bottle" with a glottal stop asthe medial consonant, as opposed to a [ t ]11July 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Syllables 12a segment of speech that consists of a vowel, with orwithout one or more accompanying consonantsounds immediately preceding or following—forexample, a, I, out, too, cap, snap, checkA syllabic consonant, such as the final n sound inbutton and widen, also constitutes a syllableClosed (checked) syllables are those that end in aconsonant; open (free) syllables end in a vowelJuly 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

The Internal Structure of SyllableσOnset (O)Rhyme (R)Nucleus (N)s13pirJuly 27, 2012Coda (C)nintro to ling/ts/2007t

Exercise 14Describe the structure of the syllables in thefollowing words:1. button2. mother3. sparkling4. however5. triggerJuly 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Syllable and Stress in English15 Stress: the perceived prominence of one or moresyllabic elements over others in a word the structure of individual syllables plays a role indetermining which vowel is stressed Metrics: the study of stress placement Which syllable is stressed in “agenda, archipelago,and cabinet”?July 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Notice the stresses in the following tAméricacínemaaspáragusjávelinWhy?16July 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

17 English nouns are stressed on the penultimate syllable when itis heavy; and on the antepenultimate syllable when it is light. ultimate lastpenultimate next to lastantepenultimate the third syllable from the end of the word heavy having two rhythmic elements in the rhymelight syllables with just a short vowelJuly 27, 2012intro to ling/ts/2007

Introduction to LinguisticsWeek 7July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20071

MorphologyMorphemes, Conditioning &WordsJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20072

Review Language is a CODE for oughtsJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20073

A flea and a fly in a flueWere imprisoned, so what could they do?Said the flea: ‘Let us fly’.Said the fly: ‘Let us flee’.So they flew through a flaw in the flue.July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20074

Word Classes Content Words noun, verbs, adjectives, adverbs “open class” vocabulary Function Words pronouns, conjunctions, auxiliaries, etc “closed class” vocabularyJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20075

Word Relation & MorphemeWords can be related to other words, e.g.happy – unhappy. fundamental elements: morpheme rules of combination: Word FormationRules Morpheme: the smallest unit that relatessound and meaning July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20076

How many morphemes are there ineach of the following words?happy happier unhappy unhappier unhappinessunhappier unhappyunJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/2007-erhappy7

Recognition of Morphemes The dinosaur sniffed arrogantly andplodded forwards. The dinosaur grunted loudly and edgedbackwards.July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20078

Bound & Free Morphemesdoorfree morphemedoorssJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/2007bound morpheme9

What does –s mean?There are two doors in the room. There are no red doors. I have zero dollars. It’s negative one degrees outside. The current is 0.4 amperes. not oneJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200710

Inflectional & DerivationalMorphemescloudscloudyInflectional morpheme provides further information about anexisting lexical item Derivational morpheme creates an entirely new word July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200711

Affixes morphemes added to free forms to makeother free forms four kinds of affixes:1. prefixes unable2. suffixes walked3. infixes in-bloody-credible4. circumfixes enlightenJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200712

Study the words computecomputerWhat word formation rules can we make?July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200713

Zero MorphemesConsider the greengreenpurplepurpleJuly 27, 2012The relationshipbetween yellow (adj)- yellow (v) is exactlythe same as white –whiten zero morphemeintro 2 ling/ts/200714

AllomorphsCats, dogs, horses, oxen, sheep, geesePhonological conditioning its form is dependent on the adjacentphonemes Lexical/morphological conditioning its form seems to be a purely accidentalone, linked to a particular vocabulary item July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200715

Compoundsthe combination of two free forms In English, the HEAD of a compound isusually the right-hand member The HEAD supplies the category and basicmeaning for the whole compounds Compounds can be used with affixation toproduce larger words e.g. blackbird, sleepwalkerJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200716

What about the following words:July 27, rryBOUND ROOTSintro 2 ling/ts/200717

Homophonous Morphemes &ReduplicationHomophonous Morphemes two morphemes having the same pronunciation(form) with different meaningse.g. un-tie-ableReduplication the copying of a part of a word; rarely found inEnglishe.g. the language of the people of Madurain English?July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200718

Other Ways of Forming WordsBlends smoke fog smogmotor hotel motel Words from names (eponym) jumbo, sandwich Truncation (Clipping) gym(nasium), (tele)phone Acronyms AIDS July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200719

Introduction to LinguisticsWeek 8July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20071

SyntaxThe Analysis of Sentence StructureJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20072

Review Recall thatwords haveinternalstructure(they arecomprised ofmorphemes)unhappierunhappyun-July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/2007-erhappy3

Definition the subfield of linguistics that studies theinternal structure of sentences and theinterrelationships among their componentpartsthe arrangement of words in sentences,clauses, and phrases, and the study of theformation of sentences and the relationship oftheir component partsJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20074

Sentence Structure Compare the following sentences:1. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.2. Green sleep furiously ideas colorless. Which is grammatically correct? Which canyou remember better?July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20075

How do we COMBINE WORDS to makeSENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology)but the trees are built on WORDS instead ofmorphemes The laws of combination for words are thesyntactic rules.July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20076

Structural Ambiguity Recall that un-tie-able is ambiguous word,with two meanings correspond to differentword structures. The same kind of structural ambiguity can befound in sentences as well.Consider the phrase:synthetic buffalo hidesJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20077

synthetic buffalo hidessyntheticbuffaloJuly 27, 2012synthetic buffalo hidesbuffalo hideshidessynthetic buffalosyntheticintro 2 ling/ts/2007hidesbuffalo8

Combining the same words in different waysyields different meanings. Many ordinary sentences can be structurallyambiguous. Consider:1. Big cats and dogs must be on a leash.2. The boy saw the man with the telescope.July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/20079

Phrasal Categories Labels for words Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective (Adj),Adverb (Adv), Article (Art), Preposition (Prep)etcPhrases are constructed out of a HEAD other material Noun Phrase (NP), Verb Phrase (VP),Prepositional Phrase (PP), Sentence (S), etcJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200710

The boy saw the cat on the mat.SVPNPPPNPArtNPNVArt NPArtNthe boy saw the cat on the matJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200711

Some Views on the StructureThe scientist discovered the swerthe traditional viewJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200712

swerInfl: inflection, showing the sentence’s tensepopular contemporary viewJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200713

Recursion Sentences can contain sentences.e.g. This is the cat that ate the rat.the sentence structure?July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200714

Constituency Tests Constituent: a word or an intuitively naturalgrouping of words that behaves as a unit withrespect to some grammatical rules (phrase) How can we tell what the structure of asentence is? How do we know where thephrases are? How can we prove it? constituency testJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200715

There are five basic tests for phrases:1. substitution by anaphors2. substitution by question words3. ability to stand alone4. coordination5. movementJuly 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200716

Substitution by Anaphors substituting pronouns for the noun phrasesThe boy saw the man with the telescope.Hehim Is the new sentence still ambiguous? NO.July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200717

Making Questions very similar to the anaphor teste.g. The boy saw the man.Who saw the man?Who did the boy see?July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200718

Ability to Stand Alone Frequently in conversation it is not necessary tospeak in entire sentences. Sometimes a piece of sentence is enough, suchas in answer to a question. People do speak inphrases:- A: Where did you eat lunch?- B: In the park. ( I ate lunch in the park.)July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200719

Coordination conjoin a parallel string of words with aconjunctione.g. The cat sat on the mat.- The cat and THE DOG sat on the mat.- The cat sat on the mat AND IN THEBOX.In some cases, alter the sentence slightly:e.g. The cat is eating.The cat AND THE DOG are eating.July 27, 2012intro 2 ling/ts/200720

Movement how some syntax rules can move phrases

The father of modern linguistics Saussure's most influential work, Course in General Linguistics (Cours de linguistique générale), was published posthumously in 1916 by former students Charles