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PREFACEWelcome to cross-cultural psychology of the Twenty-first century. The field is new andexciting, fascinating in its content, important in its applications, challenging in its goals andaspirations, yet sometimes scarcely able to keep pace with the rapidly changing conditions ofmodern times.Look at the world around us. Previously invincible barriers—both literal andmetaphoric—that have separated people for hundreds, even thousands of years are increasingly cracking, crumbling, and finally collapsing before our eyes. Within a relatively briefperiod of history, the telephone, radio, television, motion pictures, and more recently,computers, e-mail, cell phones, and the Internet are drastically altering our perceptions oftime, space, culture, and each other. One key click and, in an instant, you are virtually on theopposite side of the planet, or even on a different planet.We travel and migrate from one place to another on a scale previously unknown—evenunimaginable—in human history. The United States alone naturalizes almost 500,000 newcitizens and hosts nearly 400,000 international students every year. More and more Europeancountries are moving toward their economic and political unification. Hong Kong has beenreunited with China. From Northern Ireland to Mauritania, from Bosnia to El Salvador,dozens of deadly ethnic, social, and religious conflicts have been stopped and former enemieshave begun to negotiate with one another. Millions of people learn about human rights andpractice mutual tolerance. People understand that they share many common customs, ideas,and hopes. The world is indeed becoming a smaller place.Or is it? Are such optimistic beliefs devoid of factual foundation, resting more onwishful thinking and hope than on empirical evidence? Are we guilty of committing a cognitive error, confusing what “is” with what “ought” to be? While observing the facts about today’sworld, we can contend that the basic differences between cultural groups are, and always willbe, irreconcilable. We can argue that what appears to be “civilization,” “cultural enlightenment,” or “social evolution” is largely illusory. Beneath this perilously thin veneer lurks rawhuman nature: selfish, greedy, and violent. To be sure, some progress has occurred. But manycountries continue to be split along ethnic and religious lines. International terrorism hasbecome a serious problem. Minority groups around the world continue to be ostracized,threatened, and assaulted. Millions of people belonging to various ethnic and religious groupscontinue to be the target of systematic violence. Local politicians reject pleas about humanrights in their countries and label these appeals cultural “expansionism.” Ethnic groups do notnecessarily “blend” together, and the number of intercultural marriages is not on the rise.There is also an undeniable increase in international tensions, acts of terrorism, and ethnicconflicts. Consider the Middle East, Sierra Leone, Timor, Sudan, Iraq, Kashmir, Cyprus . . . isthere any valid reason to believe that the list won’t continue to grow?Even if the world is becoming smaller, what does this mean? To some individuals,“smaller” implies a sense of community, connectedness, and camaraderie. But to others, it istantamount to cramped, crowded, and confining. Where does that leave us and where are weheaded?In searching for answers to questions such as these, we discovered an enormous body oftheories, research, books, journal articles, and Web sites. Upon closer examination, however,ix

xPrefacewhat emerged was not particularly encouraging or even useful: lots of unsupported theories,lots of contradictory findings, lots of defensiveness and emotionally charged posturing, andlots of thinking that was a great deal less than clear.How does one even begin to sort through all of it? Is there a way to separate the proverbial wheat from the chaff? By what means can we thereby make informed decisions?These are some of the questions that we, the authors, have been struggling with for sometime, and, in a nutshell, largely what prompted us to write this book. The background leading toour collaboration is briefly worth noting in several respects. Although we both are of a similarage and share a number of common characteristics (from career choice to taste in music), wegrew up in very different worlds. The first author (Eric) was born and raised in the city ofLeningrad in the former Soviet Union, where he obtained his first academic degrees beforemoving to Virginia. He is a professor, author, and coauthor of 11 books. The second author(David) is from southern California, where he received his formal education and training, andwhere he currently works as a psychology professor, psychotherapist, author, and researcher.Thus, each of us brings a distinctly unique set of experiences and perceptions to thisproject. We were struck by both the similarities and differences in our respective backgrounds,and we sought to utilize these complementary contributions to maximum effect.In discussing our past, we discovered that as we were entering college, neither of us knewvery much about cross-cultural psychology. By the time we started graduate school (Eric atLeningrad State University, David at UCLA), our interest had begun to grow. But the real fascination with cross-cultural psychology emerged much later, specifically when each of usspent an extended period of time teaching in the other’s home country. The appeal has neverwaned and continues to this day.Goals of This Book. We have endeavored to distill and synthesize the knowledge gained fromour own respective educational, research, training, and life experiences into a manageable setof four primary goals. To introduce the field of cross-cultural psychology to college students.To understand contemporary theories and research in cross-cultural psychology.To provide the reader—both instructors and students—with a useful set of criticalthinking tools with which to examine, analyze, and evaluate the field of cross-culturalpsychology in particular, and education in general.To assist current and future practitioners from a wide variety of fields and services.Intended Audiences. This book was designed with the following readers in mind:1. As a primary or supplementary text for undergraduate college students from a diversearray of majors (including but not limited to psychology, sociology, anthropology,education, philosophy, journalism, political science, etc.).2. As a supplementary text for graduate students in areas such as psychology, social work,education, law, journalism, nursing, business, and public administration.3. Clinical psychologists, counselors, and social workers.4. Educators and other practitioners who work in contemporary multicultural environments.Brief Overview. The book consists of 12 chapters. The first two chapters review the key theories,approaches, and research methods of cross-cultural psychology. Chapter 3 introduces principlesof critical thinking and applies these tools directly to topics in cross-cultural psychology byidentifying common errors and providing useful antidotes. Chapter 4 focuses on cross-cultural

Prefaceaspects of sensation, perception, and states of consciousness. The fifth chapter is devoted to theinterface of cross-cultural psychology and intelligence. Chapters 6 and 7 comprise cross-culturalanalyses of emotion and motivation, respectively. Issues related to human development andsocialization are examined in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 focuses on the diagnosis, treatment, and explanation of psychological disorders from cross-cultural perspectives. The topics in Chapters 10and 11 concern cross-cultural accounts of social perception and interaction. Last, Chapter 12identifies several applied problems of cross-cultural psychology.WHAT MAKES THIS BOOK DIFFERENT?Emphasis on Critical ThinkingWe firmly believe that critical thinking is perhaps the most vital and indispensable componentof higher education and learning. Despite widespread consensus on this assertion throughoutthe educational community, however, it has been our experience that specific tools for criticalthinking are rarely, if ever, provided to students during the course of their schooling. In otherwords, people may be convinced of the value of critical thinking, but they are left not knowingquite what to do about it. This book seeks to remedy that dilemma.We view critical thinking as a series of skills that can be successfully taught and learned.As such, we provide the reader with specific strategies, methods, and techniques (along withlots of practice) to achieve this goal. For purposes of this book, each critical thinking principle(“Metathought”) is illustrated primarily from the theory and application of contemporarycross-cultural psychology. Keep in mind, however, that these principles transcend the confinesof any particular topic and can be utilized in a diverse array of fields.In one sense, we use critical thinking to teach cross-cultural psychology; in another, weuse cross-cultural psychology to teach critical thinking. This bidirectional relationship underscores the interdependence between the “content” and the “process” of thinking and learning.Pedagogical Features to Enhance LearningWe have included a wide variety of pedagogical devices throughout the text. Exercises and Activities. There are more than 30 exercises strategically placed throughoutthe book. These can be utilized in any number of ways, including classroom discussions,demonstrations, debates, individual or group take-home assignments, term papers, andoral presentations. Boxes titled “Critical Thinking ” were designed explicitly to providepractice in developing critical thinking skills as they relate to cross-cultural psychology.Chapter Summaries and list of Key Terms appear at the end of every chapter.“A Case in Point” boxes: In some instances, vivid examples or stories are best able tospeak for themselves. A special feature in each chapter reviews and illustrates a numberof controversial issues in cross-cultural psychology, displays cases and research findings,and introduces various opinions about human behavior in different cultural contexts.“Cross-Cultural Sensitivity” boxes: This section—featured in every chapter—presentssome controversial remarks, statements, and actions that underscore the importance ofempathy in interpersonal communications.Quotations: Scores of quotations appear throughout the text. These are intended to servea number of functions, including: to provide divergent points of view; to pique thereader’s interest and curiosity; to utilize humor as a means of facilitating learning; and toxi

xiiPreface induce critical thinking. A sampling of sources includes Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.,Omar Khayyám, Confucius, Mahatma Gandhi, Lao-tse, Albert Einstein, P. T. Barnum,Vladimir Nabokov, R. D. Laing, Jackie Mason, Miguel de Cervantes, the Bible, andcommon folk proverbs from a variety of cultures (Chinese, Russian, Yiddish, etc.).Vignettes: Each chapter begins with a vignette, a description of a real-life case, situation,or problem related to the chapter’s subject.Website: Additional support for the text can be found on a specially designed websiteat www.ablongman.com/shiraev4e, where you can find practice questions, researchupdates, recent statistics, facts, and links.Test Bank for Instructors.Focus on Applied Contemporary ProblemsWe have dedicated ourselves to making this text as useful, practical, and relevant as possible.As a result, we made it a point to address a variety of applied contemporary themes and topresent cross-cultural analyses for a series of complex problems that society faces today, or islikely to face in both the near and distant future. Throughout, we attempted to strike a balancebetween not making the book too theoretical (and, therefore, not particularly useful in the realworld) or too concrete (which would not cultivate independent thinking).Updates and Changes in the Fourth EditionThis edition of the book is updated with 133 new citations. In particular, there is new researchand theoretical data on traditional and nontraditional cultures, religious identity collectivism,social perception, sleep, trance, beliefs in possession, intelligence, thinking, understandingemotions, violence, physical abuse, sexuality, honor, children’s development, attitudes, verbalcommunications, anxiety and anxiety disorders, mood disorders, culture-bound syndromes,schizophrenia, spirituality, customs, eating disorders, evolutionary psychology, treatment ofpsychological disorders, and acculturation.The book includes new research data obtained on samples from countries such asthe Netherlands, the United States, Russia, Arab countries, India, China, Germany, Canada,Malaysia, Japan, Kenya, Romania, England, Cambodia, Botswana, Brazil, Zimbabwe, Finland,Iceland, Turkey, Austria, Mexico, and Taiwan. There are new data about various immigrantgroups, Muslims, Christians, Native Americans, Arab Americans, Hispanic Americans, andAfrican Americans.Chapters 1, 2, 5, 7, 10, and 12 underwent the most significant rewriting and improvement. There are new topics related to emotions, motivation, social and ethnic stereotypes,therapy, and applied problems.To summarize, we wish to make our own values clear and not to present them as if theywere “facts” or “truths.” We believe that despite all the ethnic, cultural, religious, racial, andnational differences, people can (and in fact should) learn to become more understanding,respectful, and tolerant of each other. Without appearing unduly optimistic, we do have faith inthe enormous potential power of knowledge, reason, and compassion to help realize these goals.It is true that cross-cultural psychology alone cannot solve the profound problemsfacing the human race. However, knowledge coupled with goodwill certainly can create a positive psychological climate that might eventually generate useful solutions. We hope that ourenthusiasm about cross-cultural psychology and critical thinking is contagious and will serveto enhance your own academic, professional, and personal growth.

PrefaceACKNOWLEDGMENTSNo project of this magnitude could have been realized without the invaluable contributions,assistance, and support of scores of individuals. We have benefited from the insightful feedback and advice of colleagues and reviewers, from the diligent efforts of research assistants,and from the patience and understanding of family members and friends. In particular, wewish to acknowledge Tamara Levy, Elizabeth Laugeson, Maykami L. McClure, Beth Levy, JacobLevy, Briana Levy, Zorro Levy, Emma Levy, Dmitry Shiraev, Dennis Shiraev, Nicole Shiraev,Oh Em Tee, Thomas Szasz, Fuji Collis, Don Kilburg, Evangeline Wheeler, Alex Main, SusanSiaw, Gerald Boyd, Vlad Zubok, Elena Vitenberg, Anthony Galitsky, Diana Smith, Mary JoCarnot, Beverly A. Farrow, Bruno Bornet, Yola Ghammashi, Buraq Amin, Janett Chavez, JasonSmith, Sondra Saterfield, Joseph Morris, Judith Farell, William Lamers, Rita Chung, MicheleLewis, Fred Bemak, Vladimir Shlapentokh, Jane McHan, James Sidanius, and VinnieDeStefano.We would also like to thank reviewers, Denis Sukhodolsky, Yale University; Elaine P.Adams, Houston Community College; Karen L. Butler, Johnson C. Smith University; SergeiTsytsarev, Hofstra University; Kevin Chun, University of San Francisco; Fuji Collins, CentralWashington University; G. William Hill, Kennesaw State University; Thomas Hodgson,SUNY-Empire State College; William W. Lambert, Cornell University; Alex Main, MurdochUniversity; Pamela Mulder, Marshall University; Jill Norvilitis, SUNY College at Buffalo;B. James Starr, Howard University; Yvonne Wells, Suffolk University; and Evangeline Wheeler,Towson State University for their insightful comments.A special word of appreciation is due to the administrations, faculty, staff, and studentsat our respective academic institutions (Pepperdine University, George Mason University, andNorthern Virginia Community College), where we have consistently been provided with anabundance of encouragement, assistance, and validation. We also would like to take thisopportunity to acknowledge the tremendous support we received at virtually every stage ofthis project’s development from the team at Allyn & Bacon, in particular, Stephen Frail andKate Motter. On a more personal note, we wish to express our mutual feelings of thankfulnessfor our relationship to each other as collaborators, as colleagues, as comrades, and as friends.xiii

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ber that all things are only opinions and that it is in your power to thinkas you please.MARCUS AURELIUS (112–180 C.E.)—ROMAN EMPEROR AND STOIC PHILOSOPHERThe West can teach the East how to get a living, but the East must eventually beasked to show the West how to live.TEHYI HSIEH (TWENTIETH CENTURY)—CHINESE EDUCATOR AND DIPLOMATHave you noticed that some customs appear more appropriate than others dependingon the country or culture under consideration? A 12-year-old girl named Ana Mariamarried a 15-year-old boy named Birita. Of course, we have heard of arrangedmarriages in Africa and India, but in this particular case the marriage took place in Romania,a European country. Why were so many people outraged about this incident in Romania butremain virtually indifferent to thousands of similar weddings in other parts of the world?Do some customs appear strange to you while others do not? In Sierra Leone, West Africa,during hunting, men do not call each other by name, because they are afraid that the devilsmight learn their names and later harm them. In Morocco, as in many traditional Islamic countries, people believe in demons, or jinni, who possess people’s bodies and abuse their psyches,causing psychological disorders. When listening to these stories, people in Tokyo, New York, orLondon would likely call the idea that demons cause mental illness silly.But why do many people in the West still believe in spiritual charges, magnetism, cosmicenergy, and the evil eye that causes emotional and other problems?Maybe all differences are only in appearance and all people around the world share thesame psychological features that lead to both great and ridiculous decisions. Marina Bai, aRussian astrologist, sued the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, claimingthat a space probe, which launched a crater into the Tempel 1 comet, had ruined the natural balance of forces in the universe and disrupted Bai’s astrological skills. In Taiwan, a man1

2Chapter 1 Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychologynamed Chen jumped into a lion cage in a local zoo because he heard voices instructing himto do so. Millions of people claim they hear imperative voices. Auditory hallucinations are auniversal symptom of a psychological disorder called schizophrenia. In Hong Kong, peopletoday throw notes attached to oranges into a “wishing tree,” believing that if a thrownwish hooks on to a branch, it will come true. Similarly, almost in every corner of the worldpeople throw coins into fountains, use talismans to guard themselves from physical harm,abstain from certain curses, avoid certain colors, and knock on wood for luck.People’s behavior and beliefs are both similar and different. We are different because wehad different upbringings and resources available to us, learned from different textbooks, atedifferent foods, and pledged allegiance to different flags. We are similar because we are humanbeings who listen, see, feel, act, and share. Cross-cultural psychology seeks to identify andcomprehend both the similarities and differences of people’s behaviors, emotions, motivations,and thoughts across cultures. Most important, this discipline offers the opportunity to connectwith others through a deeper sense of appreciation and understanding.WHAT IS CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY?Before reaching adulthood, most of us do not choose a place to live or a language to speak.Growing up in cities, towns, and villages, no matter where—near a snowy Oslo or in ahumid Kinshasa—people learn how to take action, feel, and understand events around themaccording to the wishes of their parents, societal requirements, and traditions of their ancestors. The way people learn to relate to the world through feelings and ideas affects whatthese individuals do. Their actions, in turn, have a bearing on their thoughts, needs, andemotions.Conditions in which people live vary from place to place. Human actions andmental sets—formed and developed in various environments—may also fluctuate fromgroup to group. These kinds of differences—and of course, similarities—are st

Victory and Harmony: Achievement Motivation 180 Aggressive Motivation and Violence 183 Culture and Sexuality 188 Sex and Sexuality: Some Cross-Cultural Similarities 191 . Chapter 12 Applied Cross-Cultural Psychology: Some Highlights 299 Health 300 Spirituality, Science, and Health 303 Business Decisions 306 Working with Immigrants 309 .