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WOMEN IN UTOPIA307womenhavingcome to controlin Ireland.Ingroupof progressivesevenfeettall,now rulethethefarfuture,theirdescendants,land.13No one holdingan importantpost- and theseare reservedforwomen-can everhavebeen married,and any slipfromcelibacyIn the fewcases wherepeople do slip,anyoffis unthinkable.springare killed(pp. 81-82). The restof the utopiadoes not seemto be directlyrelatedto the roleand statusof women;it consistsbut reformsthatthelargelyof a ratherodd mixtureof reforms,anddivorceauthorthoughtwomenwould ldren;children,easy;maytheyare twenty,are educatedand maintainedby the state;theymuststudya tradeforfouryears,and fromthetimethattheyaretwentyuntiltheyare twenty-fiveyearsold, theirearningsarereturnedto the statein partialpaymentfortheirpreviousmaintenance.In additionto tressed(p. 45). Alongthissameline,all malformedkilledat birth(p. 46), and voluntaryeuthanasiais practicedtoof old age (p. 76). But the inavoidthephysicaldegenerationdietand thehabitantsare stillyoungat 120, due to a vegetarianoftheandtobaccoalcohol.Economically, countryisprohibitionNo one can participateofandsmallbusinesses.comprisedshopsin morethanone typeof business,and no branchesare allowed.Thispreventsthe developmentof monopoliesand thepossibilityof politicaland economiccontroltheyengender(p. 43).fromaTherehavealso been two utopiaswrittenspecificallywoman'spointof view.Althoughneitherquite fitsanystrictof utopia,theyare bothexplicitlycalled utopiasbydefinitiontheirauthors.The first,A Woman's Utopia(1931) by A Daughterof Eve, is aseriesof essayson manytopics;it arguesthatwomenwould makethanmen,sinceafterall it was Eve who saw thebetterreformersofadvantage eatingtheapple,of knowledge,and she freelysharedthisboon withAdam.14The authorexplicitlyrejectsthe egalitarian utopiathatshe believesmostmenwant.'The manUtopianisa leveller;and he alwayslevelsdown" (p. 19, italicsin original).based largelyon intelligence.Her utopiawillhave classdifferences,Educationwillbe a majorfocusof thesociety.Fromfivetotwelveyearsof age, everyonewillbe educatedtogether.Fromthenand academicon, a divisionwillbe made intovocationaltrainingwillofThevocationalthesystem be guaranteedtraining. graduatea "decentlypaidjob" (p. 46). But theauthor'sconcernis withtheacademicsystem,and sheprovidesforschoolsof artimprovingThis content downloaded from 192.231.59.37 on Sun, 28 Apr 2013 23:44:10 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

308COMPARATIVE LITERATURE STUDIESand literature,whichtakethe trulytalentedand whosegraduatestheirtalent,and a "school forexcepare guaranteedjobs fittingtions,"wherethe exceptionallytalentedin any fieldmaygo andlive.The school forexceptionsis on an islandand childrenarebroughtto observethepeople at work.One of thefewreformsproposedthatrelatesexplicitlyto theA Daughterof Evepositionof womenis thereformof Parliament.suggeststhatinsteadof theHouse of Commonsand theHouse ofLords,therebe a house of menand a houseof women.At thispoint,she comesback to someverytraditionalviewsabout menand women,sinceall billsconcerningforeignaffairsand financehomeandoriginatein the men'shouse and all .(p.originatefamilyis electedundera systemof severelylimitedfranchise.Only householders,thosewho pay ratesand e each. The sole additionto thisis thosewho are also allowed towho demonstratewisdomor intelligence,vote (pp. 56, 58).woman'sutopia,an essayentitled"MyThe otherspecificallyOwn Utopia" by ElisabethMannBorgese,also seemsto me to include some fairlytraditionalviewsabout menand women.15Inall childrenBorgese'ssociety,womenwillbe freedof child-rearing,beingdevelopedin laboratories(p. 218). At theage of two thechildrengo to familygroupswheretheyare raisedin a settingcloseto thatof an extendedfamilyin whichindividualsof differentagesand occupationslivetogether.All childrenare raisedthesame,and "betweenthe ages of eighteenand twenty,whentheirprimaryeducationis completed,theywillall growup to be women"(p. 219). A radicallychangedsociety.However,each of thesewomencontinuesthenuntilabout forty-five,at whichpointshe"has had a fulllife,has raisedherchildren,has learnedfromthemanshe loves,whosediscipleshewas,whatshewas able to learn.If now she is herself'capable of attractedtowarda youngperson'seekingto acquirethem.'She willgrowintothepositionof aman;shewillbecome a man" (p. 221). It shouldbe notedthatthosewho don't change"willbe consideredfailuresin life"(p. 223).The contemporaryutopia is foundalmostexclusivelyin sciencefiction,but theambivalentpicturethathas emergedin the utopiaswe havelooked at would not be changedmuchby surveyingsciencefiction.16Traditionallyan intenselyprudishgenre,sciencefictionThis content downloaded from 192.231.59.37 on Sun, 28 Apr 2013 23:44:10 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

WOMEN IN UTOPIA309has onlyrecentlybegunto overcomeitsearlymale-dominatedbutwomenare e,althoughaccordingto one author,sciencefictiondoes provideameansof developingfullyhumanwomencharacters.17DystopiasThe dystopia,also todaylargelyfoundin sciencefiction,providesanotherinterestingway of lookingat theroleand statusofwomenin society.The dystopiachallengessomeof theassumptionsthatare oftenmade about how to freewomen,because in manydystopiaswomenare equal, the familyhas beenabolished,andsocietyis stilla bad place.I shalluse onlya fewexamples,sincemostillustratethe sameThefirsttwomakethethatwomen'splace in a ietypresent.The MasterBeast; BeingA TrueAccountof theRuthlessTyrannyInflictedon theBritishPeople by SocialismA.D. 1888-2020(1907) is,as itssubtitleexplains,an antisocialistdystopia.18Inthiscase socialismhas come to Englandin 1970, sixtyyearsafteris aGermanyhad defeatedEnglandin war.The governmentredwhowearofficialsbureaucratictyrannyby governmentalrosettesin theirbuttonholesso thattheycan be readilyidentified,bothto helpin policingand to be treatedbetter.aThe goal is an equalityof the lowestcommondenominator;doctoris dismissedto a laborgangforbeingtoo competent(p.is owned and runby the state:all housesand66). Everythingclothesare standardized,occupationsare chosenby the state,andthereis completecensorship.In thissociety,the statusof womenis verylow. Theycannotvote.Thereis no longeranylifetimeand singlewomenare not allowedto associatewithmenmarriage,theduring day because thewomen'smoralsare so lax thattheyinfluence(p. 83).are a disturbingBull:SocialistJohn(1909) is choperatesby majorityrule,dystopia.is so poor thatitspensionersarejust barelykeptalive,and as itfails,it becomesevenmoreruthless.The freedomof womenhasthemand votedto rebeen curtailedbecause menoutnumberedChildrenareraisedstrictthem.Thereare no berating womenis not.byMenare freeto choose theiroccupationsifthereis room,whichthererarelyis. Hence the statechoosesoccupationsand mostmenmustdo manydifferentbyjobs. The stateis finallyoverthrownThis content downloaded from 192.231.59.37 on Sun, 28 Apr 2013 23:44:10 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

310COMPARATIVE LITERATURE STUDIEStheworkersin n some of the majordystopias,a differentpointis made. Inwomenare equal to men,NewWorldWe(1924) and Brave(1932),andisathefamilyhas been abolished,childrearing s equallyoppressed.comareSocietieswho see thesereformsas a dveryplex thatequalityabout the societyas a whole.Thereis anothertypeof dystopiathatshouldbe noted: the sexrolereversalnovels.19Since theyall say the same thingwithverythereis no n thesenovels,normallyset in thefuture,but withsome set in aAmazonia,womenare dominantand masculine,andcontemporaryworkis underAll importantand effeminate.menare subservienttakenby women,and menare usuallykeptas pets,or mainlyforbreeding.In the morerecentworks,lesbianismis thegeneralrule,withmenhavingno sexualrole otherthanbreeding,and thisisIn other,moreconservativeoftendone by artificialinsemination.and leavethe realworkforhomeandchildrentheones, mencarethesefortheButallof the worldto e merevariations the set themeofthereversalaisservientmen;and it is thisis pointedout by having trulylineman fromthepast woo and winthemostimportantfemale,to a trulystrongman.who discoversthepleasuresof subservienceThese reversalnovelsseemto maketwo points.First,as alreadynoted,thatthereis a turalor reversed,requiredominanceand subservience.Hence theconclusionimpliedis thatsexualequalityis simplyimpossible.CommunesWomenhavealso playedan importantrole in the historyofcommunitarianexperiments.For thepurposesof thisanalysis,communescan be dividedintothreecategories:celibate,standardand modifiedsexualrelations.I shalllook brieflyatmarriage,examplesof each.Mostcelibatecommunescome earlyin thehistoryof communitarianism,althoughthereare a fewamongthe currentupsurgeofcommunebuilding.Some of the communesdid not insiston celistate.JemimaWilkinson'sbacy but consideredit thepreferredThis content downloaded from 192.231.59.37 on Sun, 28 Apr 2013 23:44:10 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

WOMEN IN UTOPIA311(founded1788) is an exampleof thistype.FoundedJerusalemand led foritsentireexistenceby thePublickUniversalFriend,asshestyledherself,it had both celibateand marriedmembers.Thiswas a fairlycommonpattern.The two 1732) and the Shakers(founded1776, communized1787, and stillin existence).Ephratahad a seriesof groupswithinit. At the centerwas a small,secretRosicrucianbrotherhoodthatseemsto havebeen unknownby othermembers.Then thereweretwo celibateorders,menand women,thatwerecompletelyseparate.Third,therewas a groupof married,but ideallycelibate,householderslivingin the neighborhood.On thewhole,theEphratacommunedid keep the sexesseparateand functioningas two separatecommunes.At times,the womendid cook forthe entirecommune,mendthemen'sclothing,and soforth;but at othertimes,thesefunctionswerealso keptseparate.On theotherhand,the communewas predominantlycontrolledby men.The founderand leaderof Ephrata,JohanConradBeissel,and all theothercommunalleadersweremen.The onlyleadershipin thefemalelinein the communitywas in the leader,calledtheMotherSuperior,of the women'sconvent.Ephratawas a Seventh-DayBaptistchurchcomingout of theIt emphasizeda simplelife,themortificationPietisttradition.20of theflesh,and as completeseparationfromtheworldas possible.The dailylifeof the communitywas basedon hardlabor,prayer,and theinnerlife.Each individualsleptin a small,two-personcellin whichtheonlybed was a narrowpiece of wood and theonlylimitedpillowa smallblock of wood. They ate an extremelyamountand rangeof food,and commentatorsalwaysnotedthatworewerealmosta overedthebody ics.ing secondaryIt seems,fromthelimitedevidencethatwe have,thatcelibacyin Ephratawas not a completesuccess.Thereare alwayspeoplewho talkabout the sexualactivitiesof thesupposedlycelibatemembersof all the celibatecommunes.Ephratais theonlycase Ihavefoundin whichsomeof thecommentswereprobablytrue.It is clearthatthe celibate,sincequite a numberof childrenwereborntothem.It is generallyconsideredthattherewereat leastsomeinciand sisterhoodtoo. But it isdentswithinthecelibatebrotherhoodalso fairto say thatthesewereexceptions.This content downloaded from 192.231.59.37 on Sun, 28 Apr 2013 23:44:10 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

312COMPARATIVE LITERATURE STUDIESThe Shakersare an entirelydifferentcase.21Thereis no evidencethatat any timein theirextraordinarilylonglifewas therea singlebirthin any of the communities,noris thereany otherevidenceofany sexual activity.The Shakersalso weremuchmoreegalitarianin theirinternalstructureand in the functioningof the communalsystem.Founded by a woman,MotherAnn Lee, the Shakerswereestablishedon a dual orderin whichall officeswereheld equallyby menand women.Each communehad deaconsand deaconessesto overseetheday-to-dayoperationof the economyof the commune.The onlyway in whichit is possibleto see any nonegalitarianelementswithinthe Shakerlifestyleis to look at the domesticarrangements,by whichthewomendid the cookingand each manin the communewas assigneda femalememberto care forhisclothes.Also, thewomendid the indoordomesticworkalmostexclusively.The men,and someof thewomen,workedin thefieldsand workshops,but theydid not worktogether.That thewomendid theworkin thehouseholdwas not considereda"natural"separationdue to sexualdifferences,however,but ainin skillsand differencesdivisionof laborbased on differencesof 1973 thisdivisionof laborknowledge.Fromthe perspectiveseemsto belie the egalitariancharacterof the Shakercommunity,but in the contextof the timein whichthe stemwas extraordinarilyin itsattitudetowardtherole and statusof women.The leadingtheologiansof theUnitedSocietyof BelieversinChrist'sSecond Coming,theofficialnameof the Shakers,weremostlymen,but womencontributedlargelyto theongoingreliin completeequalityto the men.Andgiouslifeof the communityformostof the members,thewritingsof thetheologianswereprobablyless importantthanthedailyroundof atcenteredon dancing.Inall of theseactivities,therewas equality;therewas no institutionalized sexualinequality.But mostof the communesthatdevelopedduringthe nineteenthstandardmarriage,withall of thecenturywerebased on traditional,traditionalroles.Some of the communitiesdid raisechildrencommunallly,and some of themgavewomenthevote in communitybut womenheldrelativelyfewleadershiprolesand theiraffairs,werenot changedas muchby membershipin the comlifestylesmunesas werethelifestylesof the men.Thus it is fairto concludethatin mostcommunesit was believedthatsignificantsex-roleThis content downloaded from 192.231.59.37 on Sun, 28 Apr 2013 23:44:10 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

WOMEN IN UTOPIA313changeswere not needed to bringabout the good society.In thenineteenththeOneidacenturytherewas one community,thatdid havea systemof modifiedmarriage,whichcommunity,This systemwas one in whichtheycalled "complexmarriage."22everyonewas consideredto be marriedto everyoneelse and couldhavesexualrelationswithanyonein the community,subjecttotheapprovalof both involved.An individualwho desiredto havesexualrelationswithanotherindividualwithinthe communitywouldask throughanotherindividual,in orderto avoidthe emotionalproblemsof rejectionby thedesiredpartner.The systemseemsto haveworkedverywell.In mostotherareasof lifewithinthe Oneida commune,therewas also a fairlyhighdegreeof sexualequality.At the sametime,though,Oneida was foundedby a man,JohnHumphreyNoyes,who led it throughoutits entireexistence,and mostof the politiwereheldby men.callyimportantpositionsin the communityAnd in general,workwas dividedalongtraditionallines.But thiswas not alwaystrue;at timesmenand womenworkedtogetheratjobs usuallyassignedto one or theother.The problemwithOneidaon thispointis partiallya problemof material,as it is withquitea numberof othercommunes.People who havewrittenabout thecommunesimplyhavenot been sensitizedto sex-roleproblemstotheextentthatwe are today.Therefore,we simplydo not knowto whatextenttherewas a trueequality.It does seemthatpoliticallythereprobablywas not,but at the sametimethepositionofwomenin thecommunewas consideredimportantand theywerefree.veryfeltAs examplesof the degreeto whichthewomenthemselvesfreein Oneida,thereis the factthatthe womendevelopeda modifieddressso thattheywould notbe hamperedin theirworkbythelongdressesof thetime.Theyalso adopteda shorthaircutsothattheywouldnot haveto spenda greatdeal of timewiththeirfromtheirabilityto participatehair,timetheysaw as detractingin thelifeof thecommune.Thus it seemsthatthewomensawat leastpotentiallyas fullparticipantsin communalthemselveslifeand attemptedto overcomesomeof thefashionsthathelpedto keep mostwomenin an inferiorposition.Today's communesalso dividealongthelinesalreadymentioned, withtheexceptionof the celibatecommunes,of whichthereseemto be fewtoday.Againtoday,it seemsthatmostcommunesdo followa systemof standardmarriage.The communesthathaveThis content downloaded from 192.231.59.37 on Sun, 28 Apr 2013 23:44:10 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

314COMPARATIVE LITERATURE STUDIESattempteda systemof modifiedmarriagefollowa less formalized"complexmarriage"thanOneida did,but one thatis not signififromtheOneida system.Thus it seemsthattoday'scantlydifferentfromthe earliertradiare not significantlydifferentexperimentstions.The differencescome in thenumberof communesin existenceand the numberof people involvedin the movement.

available, we can turn to the originator of the term, Sir Thomas More, and his Utopia of 1516. Here we find a totally different concept of the role and status of women- no equality here. In this I directly contradict Elisabeth Mann Borgese, who argues that all collectivist utopias, inclu