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Measurement,InstrumentationandExperimentDesign in Physicsand EngineeringMICHAEL SAYERABHAI MANSINGH
MEASUREMENT, INSTRUMENTATION AND EXPERIMENT DESIGNIN PHYSICS AND ENGINEERINGMichael Sayer and Abhai Mansingh 2000 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this bookmay be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission inwriting from the publisher.ISBN-978-81-203-1269-2The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.Sixth Printing February, 2015Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, PatparganjIndustrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Syndicate Binders, A-20, Hosiery Complex,Noida, Phase-II Extension, Noida-201305 (N.C.R. Delhi).
ContentsPrefacexi1.1.11.21.31.41. 51.61. 71.81.91.101.111.12MeasurementThe Result of a Measurement 2Sources of Uncertainty and Experimental Enor 3Systematic Enor 4Random Error 6Defruition of the Uncertainty 7The Analysis of Repeated Measurements 8The Mathematical Description of Data Distribution FunctionsDerivation and Properties of the Distribution Functions 12Propagation of Error 17Analysis of Data 19Multi-parameter Experiments 20References and Further Information 20Answers to Questions 2 JDesign Problems 212.2. l2.22.32.42.52.62.72.82.92.102.11PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTINSTRUMENTATION AND SYSTEM DESIGNExperiment Design 24Transducers 25Transducer Characteristics 27Selection of an Instrumentation Transducer 29The Transducer as an Electrical Element 31Modelling External Circuit Components 32Circuit Calculations 36Instrument Probes 42Power Measurements 43Measurement Methods 44DC and AC Bridge Measurements 47References and Further Infor,nation 50Ans1vers to Questions51Design Problems 51vii1-231124-53
viii Contents54-953. TRANSDUCER PROPERTIES3.13.23.33.43.53.63.73.8Temperature Measurements 54Definition ofTemperature 55Temperature Transducers 56Thermal Radiation Temperature Measurements 64Low Temperature Thermometry68Optical Measurements and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 70Linear Position Sensors 82Summary and Conclusions 87References and Further Iriformation 87Answers to Questions 88Design Problems 88Worked Example 924.4.14.24.34.44.54.64.74.8SIGNAL TO NOISE CONSIDERATIONSFluctuations and Noise in Measurement Systems 96Noise in the Frequency Domain 97Sources of Noise 100Signal to Noise and Experimental Design 105Frequency and Bandwidth Considerations 109Bandwidth Control 110Signal to Noise Enhancement 116Digital Correlation and Autocorrelation Methods 123References and Further Information I 29Answers lo Questions 130Design Problems 131Worked Examples 13 75. INSTRUMENTATION 96 -140Operational Amplifiers 141Analog Signal Processing 145High Speed Analog to Digital Conversion 147Digital to Analog Conversion 148Digital Logic Levels 149Digital Instrumentation 150Frequency Measurements 151The Fast Fourier Transform 152Sampling Time and Aliasing· 154Talking and Listening the IEEE 488 Interface BusInstrumentation Software-Lab VIEW 161Nuclear Instrumentation 161References and Further Information 164Answers to Questions 165Design Problems 166158141-168
Contents ix6. VACUUM TECHNIQUES6.16.26.36.46.56.66.76.86.96.10Units of Pressure Measurement 169Characteristics of Vacuum 170Applications of Vacuum 173Vacuum Systems 174Vacuum Pumps 176Vacuum Gauges 180Pumping Speed for a Vacuum System 183Thin Fihn Techniques 187Film Thickness Monitors 191Film Thickness Measurements 192References and Further Information 193Answers to Questions 193Design Problems 1937.7.17.27.37.47.57.67. 77.87.9OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS196-226Spectroscopic Instrumentation 196Visible and Infrared Spectroscopy 197Spectrometer Design 198Refraction and Diffraction 202Lenses and Refractive Optics 203Dispersive Elements 204Spectrometer Design 210Lasers 212Fibre Optics 216References and Further Information 222Ans1vers to Questions 223Design Problems 2238.8.18.28.38.48.58.68.78.8169-195X-RAY MEASUREMENTSThe Electron Structure of Atoms 227Multi-electron Atoms 229X-ray Fluorescence-Line Spectra 231Fine Structure 233Absorption and Emission Processes 233Production of X-rays 235X-ray Diffraction and Crystallography 238Neutron Diffraction 250References and Further Information 251Anslvers to Questions 251Design Problems 251227-252
x Y AND MATTERNuclear Properties 253Nuclear and Atomic Particles 254Radioactive Decay 254Decay Modes for Radioactive Nuclei 257Interaction of Radiation with Matter 262Interaction of Charged Paiticles with Matter 266The Interaction of Neutrons with Matter 270References and Further lnfor1natio11272Ansivers to QuestionsDesign Problems 27310.272RADIATION DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT275-30410.1 General Principles of Radiation Detection 27510.2 Types o f Radiation Detectors 28010.3 Radiation Dose 292References and Further !11forn1atio11 300Ans1vers to Questions 301Design Problems 301305-32111. ANALYTICAL n Electron Microscopy (TEM) 305Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 306Environmental Scam1ing Electron Microscope (ESEM) 309Surface Analytical Methods 309Nuclear Techniques 312Atomic Force and Tum1elling Scamting Microscopes 318Re ferences and Further lnforn1ation 320Design Prnblems 32012.12.112.212.312.412.5OCCuPATIONAL HEAL1H AND SAFETYOccupational Health and Safety 323Chemical Substances 325Radiation Safety 328General Electrical and Testing Standards CSA ApprovalGeneral Laborato1y and Workshop Practice 332References and Further Infor,nation 333Design Problems 334322-334330Appendices335-351Index353-360
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6. VACUUM TECHNIQUES 6.1 Units of Pressure Measurement 169 6.2 Characteristics of Vacuum
