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IntroductionThe Hogan 360 is a versatile tool that can be customized to meet anyorganization’s needs.1.3 The Importance of Others’ Perspectives: Socioanalytic TheoryVarious studies have shown that perceptions of one’s own performance and behavior can differ greatly comparedto how others perceive them (Conway & Huffcutt, 1997; Harris & Shaubroeck, 1988; Heidemeier & Moser, 2009).This suggests that individuals often lack self-awareness with regard to how others see them and underscoresthe importance of multi-source feedback for those in leadership positions. The socioanalytic theory of personalityhighlights the distinction between the actor and observers’ perspectives, with an emphasis on the latter.Socioanalytic theory aims to explain individual differences in interpersonal effectiveness and why people interact asthey do (Hogan, 1982, 1991, 1996). It can also be used to explain individual differences in people’s performance atwork (Hogan & Holland, 2003).Grounded in the long tradition of interpersonal psychology (Carson, 1969; Leary, 1957; Sullivan, 1953; Wiggins,1979), socioanalytic theory is based on two generalizations relevant to organizational behavior; people always live(work) in groups, and groups are always structured in terms of status hierarchies. These generalizations suggest thepresence of two broad motive patterns. These patterns translate into behavior designed to “get along” with othermembers of the group and “get ahead” or achieve status in the group; familiar themes in personality psychology(cf. Adler, 1939; Bakan, 1966; Rank, 1945; Wiggins & Trapnell, 1996). Individual differences in the ability to getalong and get ahead translate into individual differences in career success.Socioanalytic theory also specifies that personality should be defined from the perspectives of the actor andthe observer. Personality from the actor’s view is a person’s identity, which is defined in terms of the strategies aperson uses to achieve acceptance and status. Identity controls an actor’s social behavior. Personality from theobserver’s view is a person’s reputation, and it is defined in terms of trait evaluations— conforming, helpful, talkative,competitive, calm, curious, and so forth. Reputation reflects the observer’s view of an actor’s characteristic waysof behaving in public. Reputation is the link between the actor’s efforts to achieve acceptance and status and howthose efforts are evaluated by observers. Reputation describes a person’s behavior; identity explains it.Reputation reflects the observer’s view of an actor’s characteristicways of behaving in public.Multi-rater tools like the Hogan 360 capture reputation. This provides a snapshot of how others perceive anindividual’s performance and behavior. The multiple sources used in multi-rater feedback initiatives help obtain anuanced and comprehensive understanding of that individual’s behavior in the workplace (Aguinis, 2013). Therefore,multi-rater feedback tools provide useful information about behaviors that are outside of one’s awareness.8

2Hogan 360 Construction& Reliability9

Hogan 360 Construction and Reliability2.1 Development2.1.1 Early InfluencesThe design and development of the Hogan 360 began at Peter Berry Consultancy (PBC) in the early 1990s. Theaim was to develop a business focused multi-rater feedback tool that measured and could be used to improveleadership effectiveness. Four major influences on the initial framework of the Hogan 360 were the Baldrige Criteriafor Performance Excellence (Baldrige model; National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1988), the BalancedScorecard (Kaplan & Norton, 1996), the collective literature on emotional intelligence, and the collective literatureon employee engagement. The Baldrige model, supplemented by the Balanced Scorecard, provided a frameworkto inform the development of business-related competencies, while the emotional intelligence and employeeengagement literature provided a framework to inform the development of behavioral competencies.We selected the Baldrige model as the framework for the Hogan 360 based on its ability to predict organizationalperformance outcomes (Flynn & Saladin, 2001; Ghosh, Handfield, Kannan, & Tan, 2003; Lee, Rho, & Lee, 2003).The criteria revolutionized standards on quality and continue to be used internationally as a guide for businessstrategy development. It is a continuous improvement framework that covers seven dimensions critical toperformance excellence, including leadership, planning, customers, measurement, people, processes, and results.The Balanced Scorecard was also a significant influence on the development of the Hogan 360 . Kaplan andNorton’s (1996) innovation was the establishment of non-financial measures alongside financial ones as a basisfor strategic planning, measurement and continuous improvement. Although the Balanced Scorecard started as ameasurement tool, it has since evolved into a strategic planning framework covering financials, customers, internalbusiness processes, and learning and growth.Despite the advantages of both the Baldrige model and the Balanced Scorecard, the Baldrige model is usedas the organizing framework for the Hogan 360 due to its emphasis on leadership, people, and culture. Usingthe Baldrige model as the theoretical foundation, and the Balanced Scorecard to supplement the model, PBCdeveloped its own “9 Steps to Business Excellence” (see Appendix B; Berry, 2007) and began work on theHogan 360 . In its early format, the Hogan 360 items were designed to assess leadership, strategic planning,measurement, people, customers, processes and performance. The first version of the Hogan 360 was releasedin 1995.That same year, the concept of emotional intelligence was popularized with the publication of DanielGoleman’s Emotional Intelligence – Why it can matter more than IQ (1995). Goleman’s book emphasized theimportance of social and emotional competence, which aligns with the idea of “getting along” to “get ahead”,a fundamental concept in socioanalytic theory (Hogan, 1982). It became obvious that social and emotionalcompetencies (behavioral competencies) needed to be captured by a multi-rater tool if it was to measure trueleadership effectiveness.In addition, leadership behavior and its impact on employee engagement had become a key area for organizationalresearch (e.g. Babcock-Roberson & Strickland, 2010; Macey & Schneider, 2008; Piccolo & Colquitt, 2005; Tims,Bakker, & Xanthopoulou, 2011). Given the ability of employee engagement metrics to predict a variety of importantorganizational outcomes (e.g. Alarcon & Edwards, 2011; Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002; Kompaso & Sridevi, 2010;Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010; Sorenson, 2013), the need to include behavioral measures of leadership becamemore apparent. To address this, PBC examined several thousand employee opinion survey responses to informemployee engagement related items for the Hogan 360 .Based on this collective evidence, PBC developed a four quadrant leadership model that captures both businessand behavioral competencies, illustrated in Figure 1. The original Hogan 360 items that used the Baldrige modelas the theoretical foundation are captured in the Working in the Business and Working on the Business quadrants.Encompassing Self-Management and Relationship Management, the top half of the quadrant focuses on anindividual’s intra- and inter-personal skills (i.e., the behavioral competencies needed to get along and get ahead),while the bottom half of the quadrant focuses on the leader’s operational (Working in the Business) and strategic(Working on the Business) competencies. The model, therefore, captures both soft and hard skills.10

Hogan 360 Construction and ReliabilitySelf-ManagementRelationship ManagementLeadership ModelWorking in the BusinessWorking on the BusinessFigure 1. The four quadrants of the Hogan 360 Leadership Model.This model was confirmed in discussions with Dr Robert Hogan in 2010 – PBC had become the Australiandistributor for Hogan Assessment Systems in 2002. It was agreed that the model represented a comprehensive,generic and global set of competencies that allowed the measurement of a leader’s performance and behavior.2.1.2 ImprovementsThe first enhancement to the Hogan 360 was the inclusion of open-ended questions. In its earliest form, theHogan 360 consisted only of scaled items. To enrich feedback, we added two open-ended questions focusingon strengths and opportunities. By 2004, PBC had collected over 30,000 open text responses around strengthsand opportunities. We conducted qualitative thematic analysis to identify common themes from the open-textitems. We identified the 26 strengths and 26 development opportunities most commonly cited in the open-endedresponses. Based on this analysis, current Hogan 360 users are asked to pick four strengths and four developmentopportunities, and choices are allocated points that help affirm strengths and development opportunities. In 2011,we added a third open-ended item focusing on overused strengths. This addition helps capture descriptions ofdysfunctional behaviors and derailment tendencies measured by the Hogan Development Survey.In its current form, the Hogan 360 includes: 50 scaled items (7-point scale) mapped to the four quadrants of the Hogan 360 Leadership Model and theircorresponding sub-themes A strengths and opportunities table that identifies four key strengths and four key opportunities Three open-ended questions focusing on strengths, opportunities, and overused strengths2.2 Leadership Competency Quadrants and Sub-ThemesThe Hogan 360 Leadership Model consists of four leadership competency quadrants: Self-Management,Relationship Management, Working in the Business, and Working on the Business. Each quadrant of the modelis comprised of sub-themes to allow for greater interpretive power. Figure 2 displays the Hogan 360 LeadershipModel, and its competency quadrants and sub-themes.Leadership ModelSelf-Management Integrity ResilienceRelationship Management Communication People Skills Team player CustomerWorking in the Business Capability Efficiency Results EngagingWorking on the Business Accountability Motivation Strategy InnovationFigure 2. The four leadership competency quadrants and 14 leadership sub-themes of the Hogan 360 Leadership Model.11

Hogan 360 Construction and Reliability2.2.1 Self-ManagementSelf-Management refers to personal awareness, self-regulation, stress management, resilience, transparency,and authenticity. It describes the process of managing one’s emotions maturely to achieve the best outcomes. Itmay require positive self-talk and recovery periods to fuel peak performance in turbulent times and avoid burnout.Successful self-management requires management of the self and taking care of one’s brand and reputation. SelfManagement consists of the sub-themes Integrity and Resilience:IntegrityServes as a role model for the organization’s values in relation to treating employeeswith respect and equityResilienceMaintains emotional maturity even in stressful situations and spends time reflectingabout personal improvement opportunities2.2.2 Relationship ManagementRelationship Management refers to the ability to achieve better results through better relationships. It is about gettingalong with others in order to get ahead. It can involve the ability to build trusting, loyal relationships with stakeholdersto support retention and performance. Relationship Management consists of the sub-themes Communication,People Skills, Team Player, and Customer:CommunicationHas clarity and professionalism in communication style and messagePeople SkillsEngages with others and is approachable and authenticTeam PlayerActively builds team functionality and cohesionCustomerIs driven by internal and external customer needs to drive improvement2.2.3 Working in the BusinessWorking in the Business refers to having the experience, capability, and efficiency to consistently deliver greatresults. It requires having the energy, passion, and competitive drive to stay in the performance zone. Success in thisarea can involve smarter prioritization of work, more delegation, better time management, and more effective goalsetting. It is about achieving service and operational excellence in a timely, efficient manner. Working in the Businessconsists of the sub-themes Capability, Efficiency, Results, and Engaging:CapabilityHas the requisite ability and experience to do one’s current roleEfficiencyPrioritizes and manages time and effort for maximum benefitResultsDelivers on commitments and expectations to a high standardEngagingBrings positive energy to the workplace12

Hogan 360 Construction and Reliability2.2.4 Working on the BusinessWorking on the Business refers to adding extra value through innovation and strategic planning and buildingmotivated, accountable teams. Success in this area can involve long-term planning to achieve competitiveadvantage and delivering results through high-performing cultures. Leading change requires spending more timeon the business, having a planning cycle, conducting regular planning reviews, and challenging poor performers.Working on the Business consists of the sub-themes Accountability, Motivation, Strategy, and Innovation:AccountabilityManages performance by providing consistent and constructive feedbackMotivationCreates a work environment that allows everyone to become engagedStrategySpends time thinking long term and shares vision with othersInnovationSuggests and supports ideas that improve processes and deliverables2.3 Competency CombinationsCompetency quadrants of the Hogan 360 Leadership Model can be combined to provide greater depth ofinterpretation, thereby assisting individuals with identifying targeted developmental opportunities. Hogan 360 scores from the Self-Management and Relationship Management quadrants are combined to form the BehavioralCompetencies. The Behavioral Competencies combination is an indicator of an individual’s propensity toprofessionally manage oneself and relate appropriately to others. The Working in the Business and Working onthe Business quadrants of the Hogan 360 are combined to form the Business Competencies. The BusinessCompetencies combination is an indicator of an individual’s propensity to deliver and optimize day-to-day andlonger-term results. These combinations are described in more detail in Figure 3.Self-ManagementRelationship ManagementBehavioral CompetenciesThe Behavioral Competencies combination describes the use of emotional intelligence (EQ) to professionally manageoneself and relate appropriately to others to get the best outcomes from teams and stakeholders. High scorers typicallydemonstrate emotional resilience and strong interpersonal skills to improve results through better relationships. It requiresstable, sustainable relationships to stay in the performance zone and avoid derailment.Working in the BusinessWorking on the BusinessBusiness CompetenciesThe Business Competencies combination describes the use of cognitive capability (IQ) to get the right balance betweenworking in (operational) and on (strategic) the business to optimize day-to-day and longer-term results. High scorerstypically demonstrate both the technical ability to deliver service and operational excellence as well as strategic insightto drive the bigger picture. It requires a strategic focus to deliver great results through high-performing cultures.Figure 3. The Behavioral Competencies and Business Competencies of the Hogan 360 Leadership Model.13

Hogan 360 Construction and ReliabilityThe combined scores from the Self-Management and Working in the Business components form ManagementCompetencies. The Management Competencies combination is an indicator of an individual’s propensity to selfregulate and deliver day-to-day results. The combined scores for the Relationship Management and Working onthe Business components of the Hogan 360 form the Leadership Competencies. The Leadership Competenciescombination is an indicator of an individual’s propensity to build and maintain relationships to drive a strategicagenda. These combinations are described further in Figure 4.Self-ManagementWorking in the BusinessLeadership CompetenciesThe Leadership Competencies combination describes thebigger-picture world of the leader who makes time to createstakeholder engagement around strategic goals. High scorerstypically build trusting, loyal relationships and motivate othersto achieve the strategic agenda. It is about partnershipsdelivering innovation and peak performance.Management CompetenciesThe Management Competencies combination describes theworld of the day-to-day manager where integrity and resilienceare required to maximize capability, efficiency, and positivityto deliver sound results. High scorers typically achieve serviceand operational excellence in a timely and efficient manner andare held accountable for performance by measurement.Relationship ManagementWorking on the BusinessFigure 4. The Management Competencies and Leadership Competencies of the Hogan 360 Leadership Model.2.4 Hogan 360 ScoringThe Hogan 360 consists of 50 items that are used for scoring. Each item is scored on a 7-point scale (1 Does notdescribe this person at all, 7 Describes this person exactly), with a Not Applicable option available. On the report,overall and rater group averages (e.g., manager, peer, and direct report) are provided for each item.2.4.1 Overall Hogan 360 ScoreThe ratee’s overall Hogan 360 score is calculated by averaging all ratings across the 50 items, yielding an overallHogan 360 score between 1.00 and 7.00. This overall score is compared to a benchmark sample which is updatedannually. The sample is comprised of leaders and executives that represent the international working populationacross a broad number of industries (see Section 5 for a description of the Hogan 360 benchmark sample). Thecomparison between an individual’s overall score and the benchmark mean yields a percentile ranking that allowsleaders to gauge their performance in relation to others around the world.2.4.2 Leadership Competency Quadrant and Competency Combination ScoresAs the 50 items are grouped into the four leadership competency quadrants and their respective sub-themes, anaverage score for each leadership competency quadrant and sub-theme can be derived. Competency combinationscores are derived by averaging the scores of items that fall under each combination of leadership competencies.14

Hogan 360 Construction and Reliability2.5 Composition of the Hogan 360 : Factor AnalysisWe conducted a principal components analysis (PCA) to better understand the relationships between items andscales and account for the variances between the Hogan 360 items using the fewest number of “factor” variables.Based on the theoretical background upon which the Hogan 360 was developed, it was hypothesized that fourfactors would emerge to represent the four leadership competencies. The analysis was conducted using all raterdata (N 7,391) from Hogan 360s completed in 2012 and 2013, and reflected Hogan 360 scores for a total of667 leaders.We conducted a PCA with pairwise exclusion and oblique rotation (Promax, kappa 1). We chose oblique rotationbecause the four leadership competencies can be interpreted in combinations (e.g., Self-Management andRelationship Management can be interpreted together as Behavioral competencies). The combination interpretationswould imply that s

powered by Peter Berry Consultancy (hereafter, “Hogan 360 ”), and provide evidence for its reliability and validity. Additionally, this manual provides evidence of the relationships between the Hogan 360 and the Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI; Hogan & Hogan, 2007), Hogan Development Survey (HDS; Hogan