A Comprehensive Guide To AP Biology

Transcription

A  Comprehensive  Guide  to  AP  Biologyby  Brian  LinTable  of  Contents:About  the  new  AP  Bio  test  (pages  2- 3)I.  Evolution  (pages  4- 8)II.  Biochemistry  (pages  8- 16)III.  Cells,  Membranes,  Transport  (pages  16- 22)IV.  DNA  Replication  and  Cell  Cycle  (pages  23- 28)V.  Ecology  and  Behavior  (pages  29- 37)VI.  Plants  and  Photosynthesis  (38- 47)*Second  Semester  Google  Doc  found  here.Important  disclaimers: All  diagrams  are  copyrighted  by  Pearson  Education  inc.  and  used  for    NONPROFITEDUCATIONAL  purposes  under  Section  107  for  educational  Fair  Use. This  review  guide  is  NOT  meant  for  resale  and  should  not  be  sold  since  it  containscopyrighted  materials  from  Pearson. Units  I- VIII  are  kinda  organized  by  target  according  to  the  green  targets  sheet  and  shouldprepare  you  for  each  test  (they  worked  for  me  at  least).  Of  course,  teachers  may  havechanged  stuff  so  yeah.  Units  IX- XII,  I  just  used  teacher  handouts  and  diagrams.  I’ve  stillincluded  friends’  notes  for  your  convenience  though. If  you  want  to  make  changes/edit/etc.  check  with  your  peers/teacher/etc.  make  acomment  (top  right  hand  corner  next  to  the  blue  “Share”  button). If  you  have  biology  questions,  DO  NOT  flood  my  FB  with  messages!  Instead  pleaseask  your  classmates,  FB  group,  teacher,  etc.  FIRST  before  asking  me  online  becauseI’m  going  to  be  insanely  busy  this  fall  with  college  apps/cello/crosscountry/NHS/school/SAT/etc.  During  school  is  completely  different  though,  and  I’ll  bemore  than  happy  to  explain  stuff  to  the  best  of  my  ability  if  I  have  the  time. Q.  What’s  with  the  random  Pokemon,  man?  A.  Wynaut? Q.  Seriously,  why?  A.  So,  in  V.  Ecology  and  Behavior,  you  learn  about  ‘kinesis’  in  the  pillbug  lab  (fun  fact:  2  years  ago,  Justin  Doong  came  to  my  backyard  to  look  for  pill  bugsbefore  the  school  started  buying  them  last  year).  Well,  kinesis  just  happens  to  be  aPokemon  move.  hence  the  pictures.1

About  Me.  and  the  new  AP  Bio  test.My   name   is   Brian   Lin,   if   you   don’t   already   know   me,   then   you   sure   will   70- 80   pages   later.Anyways,   I   like   playing   the   cello,   fooling   around,   and   complaining   about   things   in   review   guides.So   have   fun,   learn   a  lot,  and  eat  a  lot  (the  pre- AP  test  breakfast  is  AMAZING!)  However,  don’t  eatso  much  that  you  end  up  throwing  up  during  the  test  and  losing  time  (one  of  my  friends  lol).On the AP Bio Test.Alright,   so  my  year   (2014)   got   kinda   screwed   over.   they   happen  to  be  changing  the  AP  Bio  andAP   Chem   tests   the   year   we   take   them.   Oh   well.   that’s   life,   isn’t   it?   Anyways,   you   can   see  foryourself  how  the  AP  Bio  test  went  last  year:The   mean   went   up,   but   the  percentage  of  5s  went  down(down  down  down  down.).DO   NOT   BE   WORRIED!   I   will   explain   below   whathappened  and  what  you  can  do  to  be  prepared!Now  here’s  what  the  graders/College  Board  had  to  sayabout  this  (typos  included):1,200  college  students  were  administered  redesigned  AP  Biology  exam  questions  this  spring;;  their  workwas  scored  at  the  AP  Reading.  College  professors  also  took  the  full  redesigned  AP  Biology  examthemselves  &  evaluated  each  question  to  set  the  pts  needed  for  2,3,4,5.  Most  AP  Biology  students  earnedenough  pts  to  get  a  2,3,4,  but  very  few  scored  well  enough  on  the  grid- ins  and  free- response  to  score  a  5.AP  Biology  grid- in  questions  require  students  to  use  mathematics  to  solve  biological  problems.  The  avgscore  on  these  was  very  low:  36%.Multiple- choice:  last  year,  students  earned  63%  correct  on  average;;  this  year,  61%FRQs  require  students  to  "explain,"  "describe,"  "justify"  their  content  knowledge.  Very  low  scores  onavg.ow.ly/mmH0O.  What  %  of  AP  Bio  students  earned  0  pts  on  these  FRQs?  Q5  (polypeptides):  45%.  Q6(organelles):  49%.  Q8  (hormone- signalling):  54%.  AP  Bio  students  performed  well  on  Q3  (evaluating  fossilsof  a  transitional  species)  and  Q7  (effect  of  alcohol  on  urine  production).I  have  posted  a  6- page  summary  of  the  AP  Biology  exam  results  on  the  AP  Biology  Teacher  Community.College  professors  attest  that  AP  Biology  cousre  &  exam  are  now  the  gold  standard  in  college- level  Biology.Kudos  to  AP  Biology  teachers.Previously,   the   free   response   questions   (FRQs)   were   only   25%   of   the   total   score.   Now,   theFRQs   make   up   50%   of   the   total   score.   And   if   you   combine   that   with   the   fact   that   50%   ofstudents   got  0s   on   about  half   of   their   FRQs,   there   you   go.   So,  my  explanation  for  the  drop  in  5sis  that  kids  in  other  schools  (aka  not  Stevenson)  had  NO  CLUE  how  to  write  FRQs.FRQ   tip:   Points   are   cumulative   only!   Therefore,   you   can   have   tons   of   incorrect   stuff   but   theycan’t  take  points  off  for  that  (obviously,  this  is  different  on  other  AP  tests).“Somehow,   maybe   just   due   to   the   stress   of   the   test,   kids   saw   that   message,   and   thought   the2

proctor   would   tell   them   when   to  move  on  to  the  grid- in  problems.  So  time  ran  out,  and  they  didn'tdo  them!”  - Some  teacher  guyApparently   some   people  just  didn’t  do  the  grid- ins  because  I  have  no  idea  really.  Luckily,  all  ofus   were   told   to   work   backwards   on   the   MC,   starting   with   the   grid- ins   (and   the   hardernormal   MC)   so   I   (at   least)  did  not  have  that  problem.  Grid- ins  are  not  really  that  hard  though.Even   though   you   can’t   guess   like   a   MC   question,   there’s   quite  a   bit   of   room   for   rounding   errorsand  stuff.  And  the  math  is  pretty  easy  (though  tedious).Also,   time   was  not   an   issue   for   me   (that’s   for   me  though,  one  of  my  friends  had  to  throw  up  inthe   middle   and   didn’t   finish ).   I   had   enough   time   left   after   the   MC   to   check  over   about   half   ofthem.   On   the   FRQs,   I   was  able   to   read   through   all   of   them   (and   my   responses).  In   fact,   makesure   you   leave   plenty   of   space   to   add   stuff   later   since   you   will   have   time   to   go   back   and   stuffmore  key  words  in.Also,   it’s   important   to   realize   that   the   test   has  shifted  away  from  memorization/content- basedand   more   towards   skill/application/understanding   (for   example,   they   will   have   questionswhere   they   will   explain  a   lab/concept   for   you   and   then  ask  you  about  it).  Your  teachers  will  saycorny   stuff   about   how   understanding   stuff   is   important   (the   whole   Big   Idea   thing).They’re  actually  right.  Seriously,  I  thought  it  was  really  cheesy  but  it  helped  A  LOT.Big   disclaimer   here:   The  AP  Biology  test  content  NO  LONGER  coincides  (completely)  withthe   SAT   Bio   test.   You   will   have   to   self   study   around   half   of   the   material.   Sucks   since   theCollege   Board   makes   both   but   haven’t   updated   the   SAT   subject   test.   Also,   there’s   a   lot   lesscurve   than   physics,   which   sucks.   Take   SAT   PHYSICS   or   CHEM!   Please!   (Plus   Princetondoesn’t  take  Bio  for  engineering  majors).  Seriously,  I  regret  not  taking  SAT  Physics.Also,   do   not   pay   for   test- prep   books/   tutoring   unless   they’re   based   on/have   actuallytaken   the   new   test.   I   bought   the   Barron’s   book   last   year   and   it   was   a   waste   of   moneyconsidering   entire   chapters   were   irrelevant   (and   useless)   and   covered   stuff   we   didn’t   need   toknow  (all  the  while  leaving  other  stuff  out).  Just  ask  someone  who  took  the  new  test.Reasons Why You Shouldn’t Be Scared All  three  teachers  are  very  qualified  (from  personal  experience    friends’  experience)A  lot  less  homework  than  before  (notes  are  not  mandatory-  more  college  style)Teachers/we  now  know  what  to  look  out  for  (no  old  tests  to  look  at)I  think  David  Chen  got  like  a  100%  on  the  1st  semester  final.  That  should  inspire  you.The  test  was  ‘easier’  but  the  curve  was  a  lot  tougher.  This  should  be  fixed  (I  hope).The  percentages  do  not  reflect  Stevenson!  You  will  be  fine  if  you  work  hard!3

I.  Evolution1.  Evolution  by  Natural  Selection  Okay,  let’s  start  off  with  a  population  (bunch  of  same  species  in  same  place)  There’s  going  to  be  genetic  variation.  Why?1.  Random  mutations.  Point  mutations  (insert/delete/frameshift)2.  Crossing  over  and  recombination  (getting  back  together)3.  Law  of  Independent  Assortment  (Metaphase  I    2  dif.  orientations)4.  Random  fertilization(You  learn  about  all  this  stuff  later,  I  just  added  it  here  since  this  is  a  big  FRQ  topic)  These  different  individuals  will  be  selected  for  or  against  by  selective  pressures  Any  developed  traits  that  help  you  survive  are  known  as  adaptations  Those  that  survive  to  reproduce  will  create  offspring  and  change  the  allele  frequency  of  thepopulation  in  favor  of  the  ‘fit’  allele  (allele    version  of  a  gene)  Divergent  evolution  branching  out  (becoming  “more  different”)  Convergent  evolution  evolving  similarly  (explains  analogous  structures  in  5.)  Population    a  group  of  individuals  of  same  species  that  can  interbreed  and  create  fertileoffspring  (so  a  herd  of  deer  or  something)  Species    a  group  of  populations  whose  members  can  interbreed  and  produce  fertile  offspring(all  the  deer  herds  in  the  world)2.  Hardy- Weinberg  What’s  it  say?  Allele  frequency  and  genotype  frequency  remain  constant!  But  for  this  to  apply,  we’ll  need  5  conditions:1.  Really  big  population/sample  size2.  No  mutations3.  Random  mating4.  No  natural  selection5.  No  migration/gene  flow  (ie  no  adding/removing  organisms)Equation  1:P  Q   1Equation  2:P ²    2P Q    Q²    1P  is  the  dominant  allele  frequency.  Q  is  the  recessive  allele  frequency.So  if  you  have  mice  that  can  either  have  brown  hair  or  black  hair  (where  hair  color  is  the  genewith  2  different  alleles).  Then  %  brown  (P)    %  black  (Q)    100%  (1).  Should  make  sense.4

P²  is  the  frequency  in  the  population  with  homozygous  dominant  allele.2PQ  is  the  frequency  in  the  population  with  heterozygous  both  alleles.Q²  is  the  frequency  in  the  population  with  homozygous  recessive  allele.Since  the  mice  get  one  allele  from  each  parent,  you  multiply  the  allele  frequencies  together.Since  P    chance  of  getting  the  dominant  allele  and  Q    chance  of  getting  the  recessive  allele,you  multiple  P  *  P  to  get  the  chance  of  getting  homozygous  (2)  dominant  alleles  and  so  on.  Genotype    Set  of  genes  it  carries;;  2  alleles.  Phenotype    Expressed  traits;;  characteristics.  (Straight  hair)So  if  brown  is  dominant,  a  brown  mouse  can  have  the  genotype  Bb  (one  brown  and  one  black)but  still  have  the  phenotype  brown  since  that  allele  takes  over.3.  Microevolution  What  is  microevolution?  Changes  in  allele  frequencies  within  a  population.  There  are  4  main  causes  for  microevolution:1.  Random  mutations2.  Natural/Artificial  Selection3.  Genetic  drift4.  Gene  flow  Genetic  drift  is  changing  allele  frequencies  by  changing  the  sample  size1.  Bottleneck  (natural  disaster random  drop  in  gene  pool,  depends  on  survivors)2.  Founder  (random  group  leaves  and  ‘founds’  new  population,  depends  on  founders)  Gene  flow  and  migration  is  when  you  transfer  alleles  from  one  population  to  another4.  Macroevolution  What  is  macroevolution?  Formation  of  a  new  species  (speciation)  How  does  this  happen?1.  Start  off  with  parent  species2.  Add  a  reproductive  barrier3.  Wait  some  time4.  Divergent  groups  can’t  produce  fertile  offspring5.  Voilà!  Macroevolution  There  are  two  main  modes  of  speciation  Allopatric  speciation    geographic/physical  isolationExamples  would  be  mountains,  long  distances,  oceans,  etc.5

 Sympatric  speciation    non- physical  isolationExamples  would  be  all  the  stuff  in  I.6:  Reproductive  Barriers  (scroll  down  1  page)  Adaptive  radiation  refers  to  when  a  parent  species  diversifies  and  fills  many  different  niches5.  Evidence  for  Evolution  Embryology    stuff  looks  the  same  as  an  embryo  and  early  stages  of  development  Anatomy  (what  stuff  looks  like)  Homologous  structures  (different  function,  similar  anatomy)  Vestigial  structures  (random  crap  left  over  from  common  ancestor,  ex.  tailbone)  Analogous  structures  (NOT  evidence,  stuff  that  evolved  same,  bird/bug  wings)  Molecular  Biology    all  organisms  have  similarities  in  DNA,  RNA,  proteins,  ATP  use,  etc.  Usebioinformatics  to  compare  chimpanzee  DNA  to  human  DNA  Paleontology    dig  up  stuff,  do  carbon  dating,  look  at  fossil  records,  ratio  Carbon  14  to  12  Physiology    similar  processes  and  functions  in  organisms  (jaw  bones,  chloroplasts,  etc.)6.  Reproductive  BarriersEgg    Sperm    Zygote  Pre- zygotic    impede  mating  or  hinder  fertilization  even  if  mating  occursType  1:  No  mating  (ie  NO  SEX!)  Habitat  Isolation:  different  areas  (water/land  snake)  Temporal  Isolation:  different  times  (winter/summer  skunk)  Behavioral  Isolation:  different  courtship  rituals  (bird  songs)Type  2:  No  fertilization  (sperm  never  meets  egg)  Mechanical  Isolation:  the  ‘parts  don’t  fit’  (use  your  imagination)  Gametic  Isolation:  sperm  cannot  fertilize  egg  (dif.  color  eggs    in  sea  urchins)  Post- zygotic    prevent  the  hybrid  (offspring)  from  developing  correctly  Reduced  Hybrid  Viability:  too  weak  and  dies  Reduced  Hybrid  Fertility:  sterile  offspring  (mule)  Hybrid  Breakdown:  hybrid’s  offspring  can’t  survive6

7.  Modes  of  Selection  Directional    favors  one  extreme  Diversifying/Disruptive    favors  both  extremes  Stabilizing    favors  the  middle  Frequency  Dependent    fitness  declines  if  too  common  (ex.  Google  ‘scale  eating  fish’)  Sexual  Selection    organisms  with  best  traits  get  to  reproduce  Intrasexual:  compete  with  same  gender  (ex.  alpha  lion)  Intersexual:  ‘mate  choice’  (choose  flashy  colors  of  peacock,  etc.)8.  Chi- SquareX ²    Σ   (O E)²E  X²  means  “chi- squared”.  DO  NOT  take  the  square  root  or  anything.  O  means  observed  number  E  means  expected  number  Degrees  of  Freedom    number  of  possibilities  minus  one  (ex.  rolling  a  die    5  degrees  offreedom)  P  value    probability  observed  results  are  due  to  chance  If  P    .05    results  are  NOT  due  to  chance  Null  hypothesis    predicting  that  there  is  NO  change7

9.  Cladograms/Phylogenetic  Trees“Jaws,  lungs,  etc.”  are  traits  that  distinguish  each  branch.  Clade    bunch  of  organisms  evolved  from  same  common  ancestor  There  are  different  types  of  clades  Monophyletic:  complete,  all  from  same  common  ancestor  (all  the  animals  above)  Paraphyletic:  incomplete,  not  everyone  (just  the  chimp,  mouse,  and  pigeon)  Polyphyletic:  different  common  ancestor  (all  the  animals  above    a  plant)II.  Biochemistry1.  BondsNote:  Bonds  are  listed  in  order  of  strongest    weakest  Intramolecular  Bonds    hold  a  single  molecule  together,  covalent  and  ionic  bonds  Covalent  Bonds   a  sharing  of  valence  electrons  Nonpolar  (equal  b/w  two  of  same  atom):  O2,  H2,  etc.  Polar  (unequal  sharing,  difference  in  electronegativity):  H2O  Ionic  Bonds    giving  or  taking  electrons  Need  a  big  difference  in  electronegativity  (NaCl)  Cation  donates  electron,  Anion  receives  Intermolecular  Bonds    attraction  between  multiple  molecules  Hydrogen  Bonds    attraction  between  positive  (H)  and  negative  (O)  poles  of  water  molecules  Van  der  Waals    temporary  dipoles  from  random  electron  movement,  need  to  be  closetogetherSo.  Covalent Ionic    Hydrogen Van  der  Waals8

2.  Why  is  Water  so  Special?  Structure    polar  molecule,  easily  forms  H- bonds,  hydrophilic  of  course  4  awesome  properties:1.  Cohesion:  Water  molecules  link  together  with  H- bonds,  allows  for  transpiration  pull  in  plants2.  Moderation  of  Temperature:  High  specific  heat    takes  a  lot  of  heat  to  increasetemperature,  evaporative  cooling  (sweating),  regulates  the  Earth’s  climate3.  Freezing:  ice  floats  on  water,  keeps  fish  and  stuff  alive,  oceans  can  thaw  out  duringspring/summer4.  ‘Universal  Solvent’:  forms  aqueous  solution3.  Acids  and  Bases  Acid    Donates  H  ions  Base    Accepts  H  ions  (increases  OH  concentration)  Strong  acids/bases    dissociates  completely  in  water  (completely  falls  apart)ex.  HCL    H  and  Cl-  Weak  acids/bases    ionically  binds  and  stuff,  does  not  dissociate  completelyex.  H2CO3    H          HCO3 Carbonic  Acid    Hydrogen  Ion    Bicarbonate  IonNotice  how  you  get  the  random  clump  of  crap  (Bicarbonate  Ion)  pH  scale    measures  how  acidic  or  basic  a  solution  is  Acids    pH  0- 7  Bases    pH  7- 14  Go  up  1  number    multiply  by  104.  Carbon  and  its  Isomers  Carbon  has  4  valence  electrons    equal  as  likely  to  give  or  receive  Isomer    same  chemical  formula,  different  physical  arrangement  of  atoms  Structural    different  covalent  bond  arrangements,  always  single  bonds  Geometric    double  bonded  in  center  (can’t  move),  X/H  can  rotate  in  3DCis:  1st  example,  Trans:  2nd  example  (trans    across,  like  trans- continental)  Enantiomer    same  arrangement  of  atoms,  but  are  ‘mirror  images’  of  each  other,  always  intetrahedral  shape  (3D),  also  known  as  “chiral  compounds”9

5.  Functional  Groups10

(Make  sure  to  refresh  on  these  before  the  AP  test/final)11

6.  Macromolecules  Dehydration  synthesis    take  out  a  water  molecule,  combine  two  things  (anabolism)  Hydrolysis    add  a  water  molecule,  break  things  apart  (catabolism)  4  groups  of  macromolecules    Carbohydrates,  lipids,  proteins,  nucleic  acids  Notice  that  maltose  does  not  follow  the  1:2:1  ratio  as  it  loses  2  hydrogens  and  1  oxygen  in  therelease  of  a  water  molecule  Carbohydrates    C,  H,  O    1:2:1  ratio,  sugars  end  in  - ose  Monomer    Monosaccharides  Type  of  covalent  bond    glycosidic  linkagesFor  energy  purposes:  Monosaccharides:  single  sugar  (glucose,  fructose,  ribose,  deoxyribose)  Disaccharides:  double  sugarSucrose:  glucose    lactose  (sucrose    table  sugar)Maltose:  glucose    glucose  (amylase  breaks  down  starch    maltose)Lactose:  glucose    galactose  (sugar  found  in  milk)  Polysaccharides:  multiple  sugars,  used  for  energy  storageStarch  in  plants  (don’t  move,  can  store  energy  long  term  as  carbs)Glycogen  in  animals  (short  term  storage,  fat  is  for  long  term)For  structural  purposes:  Chitin:  forms  the  exoskeleton  of  arthropods  (crabs,  bugs,  etc.)  and  fungi  cell  walls  Cellulose:  plant  cell  walls  Lipids    insulation    long  term  energy  storage  Monomer    Fatty  acids,  glycerol,  other  stuff  Type  of  covalent  bond    Ester  linkages  Saturated  fats:  solid  at  room  temperature,  3  fatty  acids   glycerol  Unsaturated  fats:  liquid  at  room  temperature;;  3  fatty  acids  glycerol  Steroids:  4  carbon  ring  things  with  functional  groups  Phospholipids:  polar  head  (phosphate)  and  nonpolar  tail12

(fatty  acids)2  fatty  acids    glycerol    phosphatePhospholipid  bilayer  in  semi- permeable  membranes  Waxes:  long  fatty  acid    alcohol  Proteins    do  a  ton  of  stuff  Monomer    Amino  acids  (20  different)  Type  of  covalent  bond    Peptide  bond  Functions:  Structure  (keratin,  collagen)  Transport  (hemoglobin)  Enzymes  (amylase,  lipase,  polymerase,  etc.)  Defense  (antibodies,  cytokines,  etc.)  Hormones  (insulin)  Motion  (actin  and  myosin  in  muscles)  4  Levels  of  Protein  Structure1.  Primary  Structure  (polypeptide  chain  of  amino  acids  linked  by  peptide  bonds)2.  Secondary  Structure  (folding  between  polypeptides,  linked  by  Hydrogen  bonds)Forms  Alpha  helices  and  Beta  pleated  sheets3.  Tertiary  Structure  (bonds  between  R- groups,  forms  3D  shape)Ionic  bonds/  Salt  bridges  from  acidic  (- )  and  basic  ( )  R- groupsHydrogen  bonds  (between  - COOH  and  - NH2  and  - OH  groups  on  side  chains)Hydrophobic  forces  between  non  polar  side  groupsDisulphide  bridges  (strong  covalent  bonds  b/w  sulfhydryl  groups  in  thiols)4.  Quaternary  Structure  (not  necessary,  interaction  between  multiple  subunits)  Nucleic  Acids  (Note:  Nucleic  acids  may  no  longer  be  in  this  unit)    encoding,  transferring,and  expressing  genetic  information  Monomer    Nucleotides  (phosphate    pentose    nitrogen  base)  Type  of  covalent  bond    Phosphodiester  bonds  Two  types  of  nucleotides:  Pyrimidines:  1  carbon  ring  nitrogen  bases  (cytosine,  thymine/uracil)  Purines:  2  carbon  rings  nitrogen  bases  (adenine,  guanine)13

14

7.  Enzymes  and  Regulation  Enzymes    protein  catalysts;;  lower  the  activation  energy  needed  for  a  reaction  to  take  place  Enzymes  are  reusable.  Enzymes  bind  to  specific  substrates.  Lock  and  key  model:  specific  substrate  for  specific  enzyme,  binds  to  active  site  Induced  fit  model:  more  accurate,  the  substrate  induces  (causes)  the  enzyme  to  alignwith  the  substrate  (not  a  perfect  fit)  Denaturing    temperature/salt/pH  break  apart  bonds  in  secondary/tertiary  structure  For  example,  if  you  have  an  acid  such  as  Hydrochloric  acid  (HCl),  it  might  interrupt  theH- bonds  of  the  secondary  structure,  causing  everything  to  fall  apart  Also,  raising  the  temperature  can  denature  enzymes  because  of  either:1.  Going  beyond  the  optimum  enzyme  temperature  (when  enzymes  are  mostefficient)2.  Adding  heat  which  raises  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  enzyme  to  the  point  thatbonds  begin  falling  apart  Cofactors    non- protein  helper  for  enzymatic  reactions  Inorganic  minerals  (zinc,  iron,  copper,  etc.)  Organic  coenzymes  (vitamins,  etc.)15

 Enzyme  regulation    in  addition  to  active  site,  enzymes  also  have  allosteric  sitesIII.  Cells,  Membranes,  and  Transport1.  Surface  Area  to  Volume  Ratio  The  greater  the  SA:V  ratio  is    more  efficient  because  more  ‘stuff’  can  pass  through  Smaller  the  cell    higher  the  SA:V  ratio    better2.  Cell  Organelles  Eukaryotes  can  have    golgi  apparatus,  mitochondria,  vacuole,  chloroplast  (plants  only),  cellwall  (plants,  fungi,  etc.),  nucleus,  ribosomes,  endoplasmic  reticulum,  cytoplasm,  cytoskeleton,plasma  membrane  Prokaryotes  can  have    ribosomes,  cytoplasm,  nucleoid,  plasma  membrane,  cell  wall,  capsule16

3.  Organelle  Interaction  Let’s  follow  a  protein  pathway.  For  our  purposes,  the  protein  has  already  been  synthesized.The  process  of  protein  synthesis  will  be  covered  in  VIII:  Protein  Synthesis  Proteins  are  synthesized  in  ribosomes.  Free  ribosomes  are  found  floating  around  in  thecytoplasm  while  bound  ribosomes  are  stuck  to  the  rough  endoplasmic  reticulum.  Rough- ER  bound  ribosomes  Protein  is  synthesized  in  ribosome  Enters  lumen  (area  within  the  entire  ER)  Chaperonin  (protein)  folds  new  protein  in  secondary  and  tertiary  structure  Protein  travels  to  Smooth- ER  (parts  of  ER  without  ribosomes)  Buds  off  in  a  transport  vesicle  towards  the  Golgi  Within  the  Golgi,  travels  in  cis  to  trans  direction  At  cis  end,  enzymes  will  begin  modifying  protein  by  phosphorylation  or  glycosylation  Glycosylation  adds/removes  sugars.  This  decides  where  the  protein  will  go  At  trans  end,  the  finished  protein  will  exit  the  Golgi  in  secretory  vesicles  If  the  vesicles  fuse  with  lysosomes,  the  proteins  will  be  for  digestion  of  stuffProtein  examples:  Nuclease,  lipase,  protease,  etc.Stuff  examples:  Food,  antigens,  screwed  up  organelles,  etc.  These  vesicles  can  also  carry  the  proteins  out  or  to  other  organelles  The  proteins  will  leave  the  cell  and  enter  the  bloodstream  via  exocytosis  Examples  of  RER  proteins  include:  hormones  (insulin)  and  digestive  enzymes  (lipase)  Free  ribosomes  Protein  is  synthesized  in  ribosome  Receive  little  amount  of  modification  (compared  to  RER  proteins)  Still  fold  into  tertiary  structure  by  chaperonin  in  the  cytosol  Cytosol:  glycolytic  enzymes,  Actin  for  microfilaments  (in  cytoskeleton,  muscles,  etc.)  Nucleus:  histones,  transcription  factors,  etc.  very  important!  Mitochondria  and  ChloroplastThese  organelles  actually  have  their  own  genome  and  protein  factoriesStill  import  most  integral  proteins  (electron  transport  chain,  etc.)  from  cytosol  Always  inside  the  cell  it  was  produced  in!17

4.  Prokaryotic  vs.  Eukaryotic  Cells  Prokaryotes    include  domains  Archaea  and  Bacteria  (E.  coli,  mold,  etc.)  Eukaryotes    include  domain  Eukarya  (echinoderms,  chordates,  plants,  etc.)18

5.  The  Three  Domains  of  Life6.  Origin  of  Life  Abiotically  synthesize  small  organic  molecules  (amino  acids,  hydrocarbons,  etc.)  Miller- Urey  experiment“Primordial  soup”  of  methane,  ammonia,  water,  hydrogen,  energyNO  oxygen  present  in  large  amounts  (not  until  plants  spread)  These  molecule  form  big  macromolecules  (proteins,  carbs,  lipids,  nucleic  acids,  etc.)  Formation  of  protobionts  (membrane- enclosed  molecules)  RNA  World  RNA  can  replicate,  pass  down  inherited  traits  (like  DNA)  RNA  can  also  act  like  an  enzyme  as  a  ribozyme  Endosymbiosis    membrane  bound  prokaryotes  engulf  each  other,  mutually  beneficial  More  efficient  (compartmentalized  processes)  Chloroplasts/mitochondria  have  own  genome,  proof  for  endosymbiosis19

7.  Parts  of  a  Plasma  Membrane  Peripheral  proteins    located  on  the  hydrophilic  surface  of  membrane,  responsible  forregulating  cell  signaling,  interaction,  and  other  events  Integral  proteins    embedded  within  membrane,  serve  as  pumps,  channels,  and  electrontransport  chains  Cholesterol    located  within  the  hydrophobic  regions,  maintains  membrane  stability  whenwarm,  maintains  fluidity  when  cool  Glycolipids    carbohydrate  (glyco- )  bound  directly  to  membrane  (lipid),  provides  energy,cellular  recognition,  Glycoproteins    carbohydrate  (glyco- )  bound  to  a  membrane  protein  (usually  peripheral),  cellsignaling,  determine  blood  type,  recognition  of  self  vs.  nonselfGlycolipids    Glycoproteins    Glycocalyx  Immune  system  can  recognize  and  attack  foreign  (nonself)  organisms  Immune  system  can  recognize  and  attack  cancerous  cells  Transplant  issues20

8.  Types  of  Passive  Transport  Concentration  Gradient    substances,  molecules,  ions,  etc.  will  naturally  travel  from  highconcentrations  to  low  concentrations  Diffusion    simply  going  down  the  concentration  gradient  Osmosis    the  diffusion  of  water  down  its  concentration  gradient  (from  high  water  potential  tolow  water  potential)  Facilitated  Diffusion    still  going  down  the  concentration  gradient,  but  traveling  through  anintegral  protein  channel  (ex.  ‘leak’  channels  for  K  ions)9.  Types  of  Active  Transport  The  cell  spends  energy  (ATP)  to  send  stuff  against  its  concentration  gradient  Proton  pumps    pump  ions  in  or  out  of  a  cell  in  order  to  establish  a  concentration  gradient  Cotransport    pump  H  ions,  other  ions  or  molecules  hitch  aride10.  Types  of  Bulk  Transport  Exocytosis    create  a  vesicle  to  send  stuff  outside  of  the  cell  Endocytosis    vesicle  meets  membrane  and  enters  the  cell  todeliver  contents21

IV.  DNA  Replication  and  Cell  Cycle1.  Scientists  and  DNA  Griffith  Experiment1.  Live  smooth  bacteria    mouse    mouse  dead2.  Live  rough  bacteria  (no  protective  coat)    mouse    mouse  alive3.  Heat  killed  smooth  bacteria    mouse    mouse  alive4.  Heat  killed  smooth  bacteria    live  rough  bacteria    

College professors attest that AP Biology cousre & exam are now the gold standard in college level Biology. Kudos to AP Biology teachers. Previously, the free response questions (FRQs) were only 25% of the total score. Now, the FRQs make up 50% of the total