WIXLIB

101906Camillio Golgi, Santiago Ramón y Cajal1907The structure of thenervous systemby hunting. Fishing and pest controlalso involve the killing of animals, butthese are not counted.Since 2014, animals used for scientific purposes are registered according to a new Europe-wide reportingprocedure. Newly introduced was theregistration of independently feedinglarval forms. The first count showedthat 563,000 animal larvae were usedAlphonse LaveranThe causative role ofprotozoa in diseasesin scientific research. Fish larvae canbe very small, so that direct countingis not possible and the number of larvae can only be estimated. This initialfigure is not included in the figurespublished by the German Ministry ofFood and Agriculture.There has been a slight decrease inthe overall number of animals usedfor scientific research in recent years:Chart 1:Percentage of animals used for specific research purposesBasic research: 31.1%Translational and applied research: 11.9%28.2%31.1%Conservation breeding programmes of geneticallymodified, burdened animal colonies: 2.8%Quality control, toxicology andother safety evaluations: 23.7%Environmental protection for the benefitof humans and animals: 0.2%1.8%0.3%0.2%Conservation of species: 0.3%11.9%23.7%2.8%Source: Statistics of the German Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2014Education, training andprofessional development: 1.8%Animals killed for scientific purposes(not animal tests): 28.2%1908Ilya Mechnikow, Paul EhrlichImmunity ininfectious diseasesin 2013 by approx. 3% (2.997 million) compared to the previous year,and in 2014 by another 6.6% (2.798million).What are animals used forin research?The majority of animals in scienceare used in basic research (31.1%)and in “translational and applied research” (11.9%). The latter are projects that test basic research findingsfor medical applications. Basic research and translational and appliedresearch are closely interconnected, and their combined percentagesmake up the expenditure for medicalresearch (43%). Animal experimentation in medical research is conducted to clarify previously unknown lifeprocesses and fundamental biologicalrelationships. In turn, these findingsare used to improve diagnostics andtreatment of human illnesses anddiseases.About 28.2% of animals used in research are not exposed to experimental treatments while alive but are putdown to gain cells or tissues. Thesesamples are used to examine basicbiochemical processes on a cellularlevel and test new pharmacologicaltreatment methods. Ultimately, thispercentage must also be allocated tothe cost of medical research. Numerous animal tests are conductedwithin the framework of consumerprotection and are required by law(so-called “regulatory purposes”).About 23.7% of all test animals inGermany are used for such safetychecks, quality controls or toxicological tests in accordance with thelegislation on chemicals, medicinesand food hygiene. These tests are required for the approval of drugs andother substances with which humanscome into contact.What animal species areused?Animals used in research are mainlysmall mammals such as mice, rats,guinea pigs and rabbits; fish and birdsare used for specific investigations.Mice (1.901 million in 2014, 68%)and rats (13%) are still the mostcommonly used animals and are alsomost often killed for organ extraction.The decoding of the mouse genomea few years ago, and the relativelysimple manipulation of this genomefrom a technical point of view, makesthe mouse by far the most importantresearch species as it offers insightsinto the genetic foundations of lifeprocesses and diseases. The slightdrop in animal experiment numbers over the last two years is mainlydue to a reduction in the number ofmice and rats. The use of fish has in-11

121910Albrecht Kossel1912Cell chemistry andcell nucleus substancecreased over the last few years (currently 9.8%) as the zebrafish genomewas decoded and enabled insightsinto the origins of the life processesin vertebrates. Other species are usedonly to a minor extent. Their numbermay fluctuate slightly, but this has noinfluence on the overall figures.Chart 2:Animal consumption and animal species used for research purposesFood: 99.15%Animals for research purposes (0.35%)Hunting (0.50%)Mice: 68.0%Rats: 13.0%Birds: 2.0%Fish: 9.8%Rabbits: 3.8%Rats: 13%Dogs: 0.1%Mice: 68%Primates: 0.1%Livestock: 0.8%Other animals: 2.4%Source: Statistics of the German Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2014Alexis CarrelThe development of techniquesfor suturing blood vesselsSince 1991, experiments on greatapes are no longer performed in Germany, and other primates are usedonly in small numbers. In 2014, thefigure was 2,842, which correspondsto about 0.1% of all research animals.The most commonly used monkeyspecies was the long-tail macaque(2,100). In most cases (2,335 animals), primates were used for legallyrequired scientific research, for example in drug testing. Cats playedan even smaller role in research (997animals in 2014), and they too wereused mainly for legally required purposes (519).The use of stray and feral dogs andcats is prohibited in experimentalresearch with animals. They are notsuitable for scientific research as theirorigin, state of health and geneticbackground, as well as their previous behaviour is unknown. Reliableand reproducible research results canonly be achieved under defined andstandardised conditions. This appliesto the status of test animals as wellas all other experimental parameters. Research on wild animals, however,is possible, but severely restrictedand subject to special requirements.To safeguard the protection of species as required by law, additionalapproval by the relevant natureconservation authorities is required.Wildlife research mainly investigatesthe behaviour of animals and theirinteraction with their natural habitats. The findings of such studies areprimarily used to protect species. Inmost cases, the animals are merelybeing observed and only exposed tolow levels of stress so as not to interfere with their natural behaviour.Developments across EuropeThe European Commission also records the number of test animals inorder to track the development within Europe. For 2011 – more recentfigures were not available at presstime – 11.5 million test animals werelisted overall. Germany’s share inthis figure is 2 million animals, because European statistics – in contrast to national records – only countthe actual animal experiments andnot the killing of animals for organextraction.Compared with the last count, therehas been a slight increase in the number of test animals in some countries.In most European countries, how-13

141913Charles Richet Discovery of hypersensitivityto antigensThe number of animal tests with amphibians – including the European tree frog – has more thanhalved across Europe.ever, the number of test animals hasremained fairly constant or has fallen slightly, as in France and the UK.Across Europe, mice are also the mostcommonly used species for animaltesting. Their share is 61%, followedby rats, guinea pigs, other rodents,and rabbits. The share of monkeyswas 0.05%. Great apes have notbeen used since 1999. Since 2008,there has been a drop in the number of amphibians (– 52%), monkeys(– 48%), birds (– 26.5%) and rodents(excluding mice) (– 19.9%), whereasthe recorded numbers of fish ( 29%),rabbits ( 7.5%) and other mammals( 38%) have increased.At the European level, more than60% of animals were used for basicresearch and for the research and development of medical products anddevices for human medicine, dentistry, and veterinary medicine. About19% of all animals were used for testsand checks of medical products anddevices. The number of animals usedin toxicological evaluations and othersafety tests has remained relativelyconstant over the last few years, atabout 9% – despite the introductionin 2006 of the EU’s REACH Directive(Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals),which stipulates that all chemicalsused in larger quantities within theEU require safety information oftenbased on animal studies.15

1919Jules Bordet17Fundamental discoverieson immunityAnimal experimentation in practice:Areas of useBasic researchThe aim of basic research is to gainknowledge and insights. Basic research has no immediate applicationbut provides the scientific basis forfurther research and applications. Because of the similarity between humans and animals in terms of theirmetabolic processes and function oforgans, knowledge gained in animal experiments can provide a betterunderstanding of life processes andtheir disturbances in both humansand animals. Although the transferability of results from basic researchto its application cannot be plannedand its direct short-term benefit cannot be predicted, scientific and medical breakthroughs are not conceivablewithout the knowledge gained frombasic research.Animal testing is a necessity and ofparticular importance where complexrelationships between physiologicalprocesses and diseases can only bestudied on the living organism. Thisapplies in particular to studies on thefunctioning of the nervous, cardiovascular and immune systems, as well asthe action of hormones. Very dynamicdevelopments are currently takingplace in the field of genome and stemcell research. It is hoped that newtherapeutic approaches can emergefrom stem cell research, using cell andtissue replacement to treat heart at-tacks or neurological conditions suchas Parkinson’s disease.Many results in basic research are obtained using cell cultures, because cultured cells develop relatively quicklyand homogeneously and can be directly stimulated with hormones or otherchemicals. Cell cultures are always artificial systems and provide only limited insight into life processes. Yet theyare the only way to directly manipulate and measure biochemical processes in the cell. In cancer research,for example, isolated tumour cells areused to identify the characteristics andcauses of cell degeneration. The truenature of cancer, however, becomesapparent only when its developmentis viewed in connection with othercells and tissues in the body. In orderto trace the development of a tumourin the organism and test therapeuticapproaches, animal experiments arenecessary in which tumour cells aretransferred into mice.The close relationship between cellular basic research and animal testingalso plays a central role in research oninfectious diseases. It is the only pathto understanding how bacteria and viruses infiltrate and attack the animalorganism. Insights into the interactionbetween viruses and their host cellsenable the targeted treatment of virusinfections such as influenza, herpesor smallpox, and the development of

181920August KroghDiscovery of the capillarymotor regulating mechanism1922Archibald Hill, Otto MeyerhofMetabolism and heat generationof muscles1923Frederick Banting, John MacleodDiscovery of insulin Marmots reduce their body functions to a minimum during hibernation. A better understanding of thisprocess could be conducive to saving the lives of seriously injured people.preventive measures. A visible resultof this type of research is the progressmade in the area of vaccinations. Onlya few years ago was it discovered thatpapilloma viruses are involved inthe development of cervical cancer.Without animal experiments on mice,sheep, horses and goats, this discoverywould not have been possible. A vaccine against the viruses was successfully developed. The German virologist Harald zur Hausen was awardedthe Nobel Prize in Medicine for thiswork in 2008.Basic research projects initially aimedat gaining information about life processes in animals may translate intomedical benefits at a later stage. A casein point is the study on the hibernationof marmots and other small mammals.Initially it was assumed that hibernation is triggered by cold temperaturesand lack of food, leading to a failureof the temperature-regulating mechanism. The latest studies of groundsquirrels, dormice and marmots however show that these animals activelystifle their metabolism and regulatetheir body temperature to be nearfreezing, and that breathing and heartrate come to a near standstill. A newway of regulating metabolism wasthus discovered that enables mammalsto switch from “normal operation”to “low flame”. To understand howthis switching process works could belifesaving in the treatment of severeinjuries or in curbing the effects of aheart attack or stroke. Some clinics arealready trying to trigger this processby subjecting patients to low temperatures. Transplantation medicine too(see page 25f.) can benefit by increasing the shelf life of organs.Medical researchMedical progress is inextricably linkedwith basic research. An example ofthis is the development of treatmentmethods for diabetes mellitus. In the1920s, insulin was identified as a hormone that regulates blood sugar levels.Experiments on rabbits, dogs, pigs andcows helped to understand the effect ofinsulin on blood sugar levels and thuscontributed to the development of newtherapies. In 1923, the Canadian scientists Frederick Banting and John J. R.Macleod were awarded the Nobel Prizefor their discovery of insulin. Rabbits,dogs and other mammals have beenlargely replaced by rats and mice inphysiological research. The rapid reproduction of these species permittedspecific breeding for individual clinicalpresentations. This includes, for example, the “diabetes mouse” with raisedblood sugar levels and the “Zucker rat”that develops obesity.Immunology provides numerous examples of the utilization of findingsfrom animal experimentation fortherapeutic applications in humans.Among other topics, immunology examines resistance to pathogens andthe rejection of transplants after implantation. Pioneering advances inmedicine include the development ofthe antiserum to diphtheria (in whichexperiments with guinea pigs wereinstrumental), vaccines against yellowfever and polio (mouse and monkey),19

201924Willem EinthovenElectrocardiogram1926Johannes FibigerDiscovery of the nematodeSpiroptera carcinoma (cancer research) Emil von Behring was the first person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1901. His serumtherapy, which was tested on animals, is the basis for vaccinations today.studies on the pathogenesis of tuberculosis (sheep and cattle), typhus(mouse, rat and monkey), malaria(dove), as well as antiretroviral agentsto combat AIDS (monkey).The discovery of the effects of vitamin C was studied in the guinea pigand led to the insight that the effect ofvitamins is the same in animals as inhumans. Hormones such as calcitoninfrom salmon are used in the medical treatment of osteoporosis. Animalexperiments have led to the development of new surgical techniques andto the refinement of operating methods. The first experiments on tissuetransplantation were performed in themouse as early as the start of the 20thcentury. These days, animal models(mainly pigs, but also dogs and sheep)are used for kidney transplantation,bone marrow transfer and heart surgery, to develop new methods for thecure or alleviation of organ diseases inhumans. Artificial replacement organs,having first been subjected to standardised technical checks, are tested fortheir biological compatibility in largeanimals such as pigs.Nobel Prize worthy: Outstanding scientific findingsSince the beginning of the 20th century, extraordinary achievements inthe area of physiology and medicinehave been awarded the Nobel Prize.The first Nobel Prize went to the physiologist Emil von Behring in 1901 forhis work on the treatment of diphtheria. At the end of the 19th century,nearly every second child died fromthe disease. In 1890, von Behring andhis Japanese colleague Kitasato foundthat injecting low doses of the diphtheria toxin triggered the formationof antibodies in rats, mice and rabbits.The animals were then protected forlife. Injecting the serum of immunisedanimals also prevented the outbreakof the disease in other animals. VonBehring thus discovered one of thebasic principles of immunology – immunity – and paved the way for thedevelopm

is not possible and the number of lar-vae can only be estimated This initial figure is not included in the figures published by the German Ministry of Food and Agriculture There has been a slight decrease in the overall number of animals used for scientific r