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CONTENTSPreface xxvAcknowledgments xxxiCHAPTER 1. EDUCATION LAW AND THECHALLENGE OF INEQUALITYA. The Structure and Hierarchy of Public Elementary and SecondaryEducation1. State Educational Authority2. Local Educational Authority: School Districts3. State Courts4. Federal Educational AuthorityProblemB. The Practice of Education LawC. The Importance and Challenge of Equality in Education LawProblemCHAPTER 2. RACE112566910101619A. Mandatory School Desegregation201. Prohibiting Racial Segregation20Brown v. Board of Education (Brown I)21Brown v. Board of Education (Brown II)28Problem312. The Affirmative Duty to Desegregate31Green v. County School Board of New Kent County 323. Methods to Achieve Desegregation and the Judicial Authorityto Compel Them 36Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education37Problem424. The Limits of Desegregation43a. De Jure versus De Facto Segregation43Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, Colorado44Problem50xiiiELEFR 2021 FM.indd 1323/11/20 9:19 PM
xivContentsb.Intradistrict versus Interdistrict Segregation51Milliken v. Bradley52c. Demographic Shifts60Freeman v. Pitts62Problem70d. Quality of Education Improvements and theAchievement Gap 71Missouri v. Jenkins72e. Synthesizing Half a Century of Evolving DesegregationPrecedent 81Problem815. Critiques of Desegregation82Derrick A. Bell, Jr., Brown v. Board of Educationand the Interest-Convergence Dilemma83Kevin Brown, Has the Supreme Court Allowed theCure for De Jure Segregation to Replicate the Disease?86Jack Balkin, What Brown v. Board of Education ShouldHave Said: The Nation’s Top Legal Experts RewriteAmerica’s Landmark Civil Rights Decision89Problem896. Resegregation90Gary Orfield & Chungmei Lee, Racial Transformationand the Changing Nature of Segregation90B. Voluntary Desegregation951. Race-Based Assignments95Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle SchoolDistrict No. 198Kimberly Jenkins Robinson, The Constitutional Future ofRace-Neutral Efforts to Achieve Diversity and AvoidRacial Isolation in Elementary and Secondary Schools115Robert A. Garda, Jr., The White Interest in SchoolIntegration1182. Alternatives to Individualized Race-Based Assignments120Doe v. Lower Merion School District121Problem127Richard D. Kahlenberg, Rescuing Brown v. Board ofEducation: Profiles of Twelve School Districts PursuingSocioeconomic School Integration1273. Desegregation Based on State Law131C. Racial Disparities Outside of Desegregation133Problem138CHAPTER 3. POVERTYA. Limits of Federal Intervention1. Fundamental Right and Suspect Class AnalysisSan Antonio Independent School District v. RodriguezELEFR 2021 FM.indd 1413914114114123/11/20 9:19 PM
Contents2. Rationality and Minimally Adequate EducationProblemB. State Constitutional Rights1. The Fundamental Right to an Equitable EducationSerrano v. PriestHorton v. MeskillProblem2. The Right to a Qualitative EducationRose v. Council for Better EducationProblem3. Demonstrating a Constitutional ViolationDeRolph v. Ohio4. Causation5. Separation of Powers LimitationsCommittee for Educational Rights v. EdgarProblem6. State Legislative Process ProblemsProblem7. Remediesa. MoneyMichael A. Rebell, Poverty, “Meaningful” EducationalOpportunity, and the Necessary Role of the Courtsb. Calculating the Cost of Educational QualityCampaign for Fiscal Equity v. Statec. Prekindergarten EducationAbbott v. Burked. Teacher Salariese. School Efficiency and ConsolidationPendleton Citizens for Community Schools v. MarockieProblemC. Continuing InequalitiesIvy Morgan and Ary Amerikaner, Funding Gaps 2018:An Analysis of School Funding Equity Across the U.S.and Within Each StateD. Societal Interests in School FinanceE. School Finance and RaceJames E. Ryan, Schools, Race, and MoneySheff v. O’NeillEconomic Efficiency and SegregationProblemF. The Federal Role in School Finance EquityG. The Future of Educational EqualityProblemELEFR 2021 FM.indd 23823824425525625626026323/11/20 9:19 PM
xviContentsCHAPTER 4. ETHNICITY, LANGUAGE, ANDIMMIGRATION STATUSA. Distinguishing the Overlapping Categories of Ethnicity,Language, and Immigration StatusB. SegregationMarie C. Scott, Resegregation, Language, andEducational Opportunity: The Influx of LatinoStudents into North Carolina Public SchoolsGary Orfield & Chungmei Lee, Civil Rights, RacialTransformation, and the Changing Nature ofSegregationErica Frankenberg, Jongyeon Ee, Jennifer B. Ayscue &Gary Orfield, Civil Rights Project, Proyecto DerechosCiviles, Harming Our Common Future: America’sSegregated Schools 65 Years after BrownC. English Language Learners1. Historical and Statutory Background2. The Castaneda StandardCastaneda v. PickardTeresa P. v. Berkeley Unified School DistrictProblem3. Choice of Language Programs and Bilingual Education4. Funding Language ProgramsHorne v. FloresProblem5. The Role of Federal AgenciesD. Access to School and LearningPlyler v. DoeCHAPTER 5. 5310310312313325A. Introduction325B. Legal Standards3271. The Constitutional Standard: Evolution Toward IntermediateScrutiny 3272. Legislative Framework — Title IX of the Education Amendmentsof 1972 330Title IX — Prohibition of Sex Discrimination331Title IX — Implementing Regulations333C. Admissions340Tingley-Kelley v. Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania341Problem349D. Single-Sex Education350Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan351United States v. Virginia (VMI)354ELEFR 2021 FM.indd 1623/11/20 9:19 PM
xviiContentsE.F.G.H.I.J.K.Kimberly J. Jenkins, Constitutional Lessons for theNext Generation of Public Single-Sex Elementaryand Secondary Schools369Problem372Affirmative Action Based on Gender372Problem377Athletics3781. Constitutional Standard378Force v. Pierce City School District3782. Contact Sports Exception3853. Determining Equal Treatment Under Title IX’s AthleticProvisions 387Problem390Pregnancy391Pfeiffer v. School Board for Marion Center Area392Chipman v. Grant County School District396Sexual Harassment400Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education401Problem412Problem413Regulatory Changes414Retaliation415Sexual Orientation Discrimination416Nabozny v. Podlesny418Bostock v. Clayton County, Georgia422Problem429Gender Identity Discrimination4301. Access to School Restrooms and Other Facilities4302. Dress Codes4333. Athletic Opportunities434CHAPTER 6. STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIESA. Introduction: The History of Students with Disabilities in Schoolsand Modern Statutory ProtectionsB. Eligibility for Protection1. Statutory and Regulatory Requirementsa. Educational PerformanceDoe ex rel. Doe v. Board of Education of Connecticutb. “Need” Special Educationc. “Special Education”Problem2. Minority Overrepresentation in Special Educationa. Bias in TestingLarry P. v. RilesELEFR 2021 FM.indd 1743743743843944044044244344444444644623/11/20 9:19 PM
xviiiContentsb. Socioeconomic Factorsc. Bias in Eligibility DeterminationTheresa Glennon, Race, Education, and the Constructionof a Disabled ClassProblemC. The Protections Afforded Students with Disabilities1. Nondiscrimination: §504 and the ADASoutheastern Community College v. DavisProblem2. Identification, Evaluation, and IEPs3. Free Appropriate Public EducationEndrew F. v. Douglas County School District RE-1Problema. The Overlap Between Section 504 and the IDEAFry v. Napoleon Community Schoolsb. FAPE and Bullying4. Special Education and Related ServicesCedar Rapids Community School District v. Garret F.Problem5. Least Restrictive EnvironmentRuth Colker, The Disability Integration Presumption:Thirty Years LaterProblem6. DisciplineHonig v. DoeManifestation ReviewsRichland School District v. Linda P. ex rel. Thomas P.Problem7. Procedural Due Process, Dispute Resolution, and Remedies a. Rights While the District Is Evaluating and Servingthe Student b. Rights to Contest Educational Decisions Affectingthe Student c. RemediesD. ConclusionCHAPTER 7. DISCIPLINEA. Procedural Due Process1. Notice and the Opportunity to RespondGoss v. Lopez2. Determining the Amount of Process that Is Due:Mathews v. Eldridge Balancing Test Newsome v. Batavia Local School DistrictELEFR 2021 FM.indd 151151252052223/11/20 9:19 PM
xixContentsa.b.c.d.e.f.g.Impartial Decision MakersBurden of ProofAppealsCross-ExaminationRight to CounselDetailed NoticeTranscriptsProblem3. Determining What Interests Require Due Processa. In-School SuspensionsLaney v. Farleyb. Assignment to Alternative Schoolc. Removal from Charter Schoolsd. Exclusion from Athletic and Extracurricular Activitiese. Exclusion from School Busesf. Corporal PunishmentIngraham v. Wright4. Academic Discipline and DismissalB. Substantive Due ProcessSeal v. MorganRatner v. Loudoun County Public SchoolsEric Blumenson & Eva S. Nilsen, One Strike and You’reOut? Constitutional Constraints on Zero Tolerancein Public EducationC. Racial DisparitiesProblemD. Due Process When Education Is a Constitutional RightKing v. Beaufort County Board of EducationProblemE. Search and Seizure1. Suspicion-Based SearchesNew Jersey v. T.L.O.ProblemJosh Gupta-Kagan, Reevaluating School SearchesFollowing School-to-Prison Pipeline ReformsAaron Sussman, Learning in Lockdown: School Police,Race, and the Limits of LawSafford v. Redding2. Suspicionless SearchesVernonia School District v. ActonProblemF. Student InterrogationG. Statutory Rights of PrivacyELEFR 2021 FM.indd 859059559660760760923/11/20 9:19 PM
xxContentsCHAPTER 8. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSIONA. The Supreme Court’s Student Speech FrameworkTinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School DistrictBethel School District No. 403 v. Fraser, a MinorHazelwood School District v. KuhlmeierMorse v. FrederickProblemB. School Authority to Restrict Student ProtestsV.A. v. San Pasqual Valley Unified School DistrictM.C. Through Chudley v. Shawnee Mission UnifiedSchool District No. 512C. School Authority to Restrict Student Speech That Is Hurtful toOther Members of the School CommunityHarper v. Poway Unified School DistrictNuxoll v. Indian Prairie School DistrictD. School Authority over Students’ Off-Campus SpeechDoninger v. NiehoffJ.S. ex rel. Snyder v. Blue Mountain School DistrictBell v. Itawamba County School BoardKowalski v. Berkeley County SchoolsB.L. v. Mahanoy Area School DistrictProblemCHAPTER 9.RELIGION IN THE SCHOOLSA. Socialization Through Ritual: School Prayer1. A Quick Look at the Rise of the “Nonsectarian” Common School2. The Basic Prohibition Against State-Sponsored SchoolPrayer: Engel and Schempp Engel v. Vitale3. Moments of SilenceWallace v. Jaffree4. School-Sponsored Prayer Outside the ClassroomLee v. Weisman5. Government Prayer vs. Private PrayerProblemB. Patriotic Rituals and Civil Religion1. Limits on Political SocializationWest Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette2. The Pledge of Allegiance and Ceremonial DeismProblemC. Religious Displays, Music, and Holidays1. Displays of Religious Texts and Symbols2. Religious Music3. Religious HolidaysProblemELEFR 2021 FM.indd 974074574874874874975075023/11/20 9:19 PM
ContentsD. Establishment Clause Limits on the Funding of PrivateReligious Education1. Everson: One Case, Two Principles2. The Rise of the Lemon Test, 1971 to 1985: No-AidSeparationism and the Prohibition on Entanglement 3. The Tide Turns: The Rise of the Nondiscrimination Principleand the Distinction Between Direct and Indirect Aid a. Neutralityb. Indirect Benefits and Private Choicec. The Demise of the Entanglement Prongd. Explaining the Rise of the Nondiscrimination Principle4. The Current Law on Direct Aid: Mitchell v. Helms5. The Current Law on Indirect Aid: Vouchers andZelman v. Simmons-Harris Zelman v. Simmons-Harris6. After Zelman: Does Excluding Religious Schools fromNeutral Aid Programs Violate the Free Exercise Clause? Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue7. After Zelman: State Constitutional DevelopmentsE. Free Exercise of Religion in the Public Schools1. Introduction2. Yoder and “Strict Scrutiny” for Free Exercise ClaimsWisconsin v. Yoder3. Smith and the Contemporary Free Exercise Landscapea. Smith, Yoder, and “Hybrid Rights”b. Trumping Smith with Other Law: External Limitationson Smith i. The Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993ii. State “Mini-RFRAs” and Constitutional Provisionsc. Internal Limitations on Smithi. Smith Applies Only to Neutral and Generally ApplicableLaws, Not to Laws That “Target” Religion ii. Smith Does Not Apply to Hybrid Rights Claimsiii. Smith Does Not Apply Where the Government HasCreated a “System of Individualized Exemptions” iv. The “Ministerial Exception” Survives Smith4. Accommodating Religious Practice in the Public Schoolsa. Mandatory Vaccinationsb. Absence from School for Religious Reasonsc. Dress and Grooming Codesd. Religious Conduct at SchoolProblemF. Equal Access: the Public School as Public Forum1. Public Forum Doctrine, Widmar v. Vincent, and the Thin Endof the Wedge 2. Expanding Widmar: The Equal Access Act and MergensBoard of Education of Westside Community Schools v. MergensELEFR 2021 FM.indd 280280380380480680623/11/20 9:19 PM
xxiiContents3. The Limited Public Forum: Is Religion a Subject or a Viewpoint?Lamb’s Chapel v. Center Moriches Union Free School DistrictGood News Club v. Milford Central School4. Distribution of Religious Materials at SchoolProblemCHAPTER 10. CREATION AND CONTROLOF THE CURRICULUMA. The School Board’s Power to Create the Curriculum1. Library BooksBoard of Education, Island Trees Union Free School DistrictNo. 26 v. PicoAmerican Civil Liberties Union of Florida v. Miami-DadeCounty School BoardProblem2. Pure Curricular DecisionsChiras v. MillerEdwards v. AguillardProblemB. Public Schoolteachers’ Right to Speak in the ClassroomGarcetti v. CeballosEvans-Marshall v. Board of Education of the Tipp CityExempted Village School DistrictProblemC. Parents’ Rights to Shield Their Children from Portions of the PublicSchool CurriculumMozert v. Hawkins County Board of EducationParker v. 56862865866867872878879879886894CHAPTER 11. FEDERAL REFORM, ACCOUN TABILITY,AND TESTING897A. A Brief Overview of the Federal Role in EducationRegina R. Umpstead, The No Child Left Behind Act: IsIt an Unfunded Mandate or a Promotion of FederalEducation Ideals?B. The No Child Left Behind ActJames E. Ryan, The Perverse Incentives of the No ChildLeft Behind ActC. Statutory WaiversDerek W. Black, Federalizing Education by Waiver?D. The Every Student Succeeds Act1. State Education PlansEvery Student Succeeds Act, Pub. L. No. 114-95ELEFR 2021 FM.indd 2289889890090090390390690690623/11/20 9:19 PM
xxiiiContents2. Limitations on the Use of Federal Funds3. TeachersTitle II — Preparing, Training, and Recruiting High-QualityTeachers, Principals, or other School Leaders4. U.S. Department of Education: Powers and LimitsTitle VIII — General Provisions5. Distributing Federal FundsInstitute of Education Sciences, National Center forEducation Statistics, Study of the Title I, Part A GrantProgram Mathematical Formulas6. CritiquesDerek W. Black, Abandoning the Federal Role inEducation: The Every Student Succeeds ActKimberly Jenkins Robinson, Restructuring theElementary and Secondary Education Act’s Approachto EquityProblemE. Standardized TestingCHAPTER 12. TEACHERSA. Due Process Rights Prior to TerminationBaxter v. CrosbyCrump v. Durham County Board of EducationB. Limitations on Changing Teachers’ Contract RightsNorth Carolina Association of Educators v. StateProblemC. The Right to Unionize and Collectively BargainMadison Teachers v. WalkerD. Limits on Union FeesAaron Tang, Life After JanusE. Teacher EvaluationsCook v. BennettF. The Constitutional Challenge to Teacher TenureVergara v. StateProblemCHAPTER 13. CHARTER SCHOOLS, VOUCHERS,AND HOMESCHOOLINGA. Charter Schools1. Overview: Creation, Control, and PoliticsSandra Vergari, The Politics of Charter Schools2. Structure, Function, and ConstitutionalityWilson v. State Board of EducationLeague of Women Voters of Washington v. StateELEFR 2021 FM.indd 011002101023/11/20 9:19 PM
xxiv3. Contractual Relationships and ManagementDerek W. Black, Bruce Baker, & Preston Green,III, Charter Schools Exploit Lucrative Loopholethat Would Be Easy to Close4. Educational Outcomes5. Civil Rights ConcernsErica Frankenberg, Genevieve Siegel-Hawley &Jia Wang, Civil Rights Project, Choice WithoutEquity: Charter School Segregation and theNeed for Civil Rights StandardsProblem6. Charter Schools and the Larger Educational Reform andChoice Movements Martha Minow, Reforming School ReformB. Vouchers1. Legal ConstraintsBush v. Holmes2. Educational OutcomesChristopher Lubienski & Peter Weitzel, The Effects ofVouchers and Private Schools in Improving AcademicAchievement: A Critique of Advocacy Research3. PoliticsProblemC. Homeschooling1. A Constitutional Right?Pierce v. Society of the SistersCatherine J. Ross, Fundamentalist Challenges to CoreDemocratic Values: Exit and Homeschooling2. Regulation of HomeschoolingJudith G. McMullen, Behind Closed Doors:Should States Regulate Homeschooling?People v. Bennett3. Access to Public School 10491049105010551056Table of Cases 1057Table of Authors 1065Table of Statutes and Regulations 1071Index 1073ELEFR 2021 FM.indd 2403/12/20 5:11 PM
Lower Merion School District 121 Problem 127 Richard D. Kahlenberg, Rescuing Brown v. Board of . Teacher Salaries 225 e. School Efficiency and Consolidation 227 Pendleton Citizens for Community Schools v. . Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District RE-1 467 Problem 475 a. The Overlap Between Section 504 and the IDEA 475
