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Discover Ancient Chinafrom China’s north. But It failed to do so.Invasion and attack from north of the wallwas a frequent threat in ancient China untilnorthern tribes finally succeeded in conquering China.Dynasties rose and fell in the centuriesafter the Han dynasty and China’s conquestby the Mongols and the Qing dynasty. Butthe powerful central state created by theQin dynasty, which had been expandedand strengthened by the Han dynasty,remained in place until the end of theempire in a.d. 1911. The concept of a powerful and virtuous emperor ruling througha vast bureaucracy under strict law andstrongly influenced by philosophies of thetime was adapted and used by the succeeding dynasties.« 28 »

Chapter 3LAND, PEOPLEand RELIGION

Discover Ancient ChinaChina is the largest country in theworld in population and the fourthlargest in area. China’s east coast is bordered by three seas, the Yellow Sea, theEast China Sea, and the South China Sea,which are all part of the Pacific Ocean.China’s northern border reaches Mongoliaand Russia while to the south, Chinareaches North Vietnam. To the west,China’s major neighbor is India.Northern China was and is cold anddry, suitable only for the cultivation ofwheat or barley and millet and pasture forsome horses and cattle. Most important tothe people in northern China is the depositby wind and dust storms of a rich, fertilesoil known as loess. Loess deposits, whichcan be hundreds of feet deep, providedshelter for the ancient Chinese, since theywere able to dig homes in them. SouthernChina was warm and tropical in part andsuitable for the cultivation of rice, tea, and« 30 »

Land, People, and Religionmulberry trees whose leaves provided thefood for silkworms. Those silkwormsprovided the Chinese with the material tomake silk, which was also produced inother regions. Silk has been an importantmaterial throughout Chinese history.Major RiversThe two major rivers in China are theYellow River (Huang He) and the YangziRiver (Chang Jiang). The Yellow Riverruns for approximately 3,395 miles, fromthe Kunlun Mountains in western China tothe Bo Hai, an arm of the Yellow Sea, in theeast, but its course has changed—or beenchanged—over the centuries. The YellowRiver has overflowed its banks countlesstimes in China’s long history, causingflooding over thousands of miles. Thatflooding has led to a vast deposit of loessfrom which the early centers of China1grew.« 31 »

Discover Ancient ChinamothcocoonsilkwormAccording to a Chinese legend, silk wasdiscovered in about 2700 B.C. in EmperorHaungdi’s garden. Only the Chinese knewhow to make silk for 3,000 years.« 32 »

Land, People, and ReligionChina’s longest river is the Yangzi,flowing 3,200 miles from the Tibetanplateau to the East China Sea. The Yangziis the longest river in Asia and the thirdlongest river in the world. Unlike theYellow River, the Yangzi is navigable. Largeships can navigate the Yangzi for up to1,000 miles from the coast to the interiorof China, after which smaller ships can2travel an additional 600 miles. Throughout China’s history, the Yangzi has been ahighway of communication, commerce,and trade from China’s coast deep into itsinterior. China is roughly divided intonorth and south regions by a line drawnmidway between the Yellow River and theYangzi River.Farming and MiningAgriculture was the main occupation ofthe Chinese under the Shang kings andthrough the Han Empire. There were few« 33 »

The Yangzi River has always played a major role inChinese history. For thousands of years, people haveused the river for water, irrigation, sanitation,transportation, industry, boundary-marking and war.

Discover Ancient Chinacities except those established as capitalsby the kings and emperors or local centersfor the administration of the government.Most of the population lived in small townsand villages whose inhabitants were connected by family or clan ties.While the majority of the populationwas made up of farmers, there were significant numbers of skilled artisans such asbronze makers, potters, and even makers ofmusical instruments such as bells andocarinas, which are oval wind instruments.3Beginning in the Qin dynasty and greatlyexpanded under the Han dynasty, therewas a large bureaucracy of governmentofficials.Farmers paid rent to the government inthe form of crops or labor to live on theland they farmed. They were also forced todonate some of their time to work ondikes, roads, and public buildings. Forcedlabor was also used to build defensive walls« 36 »

Land, People, and Religionof rammed earth with the hardness ofcement around the cities and larger towns.There were small numbers of merchantswho lived in the capital cities or traveledthe countryside.By the Shang dynasty, 1523 b.c. to1027 b.c., bronze was in wide use, and theShang kings used chariots and weapons ofbronze. Iron, first cast in 513 b.c., was ingeneral use by 400 b.c., mainly in agriculture. With the invention of the bellows,steel was being produced in China by thesecond century b.c.Early WritingThe history of Shang rule is derived fromvast numbers of bones and tortoise shellsdiscovered in Anyang, one of the Shangkings’ capitals. The bones and shells areinscribed with questions asked by the kingsand answers given by specialists practicedin the art of interpreting the cracks and« 37 »

A view of the Yellow River in China'sSichuan Province where it winds throughthe Tangke Grassland.

Discover Ancient Chinamarkings in the bones and shells that wereproduced by heating them. This practicewas known as divination. Oracles, peoplewho were considered to have a specialwisdom and the ability to foretell thefuture, would read the cracks in the bonesand answer questions asked of them bygovernment officials. Those questionsmight be about almost anything, because itis believed that the Shang kings werehighly superstitious. But they probablyasked questions about the worship ofancestors, what military actions should betaken, and whether those actions would besuccessful.In addition to the bones and tortoiseshells, official accounts are also derivedfrom writings on bamboo and wood. Theexistence of these written records showsthat writing was already highly developedby the Shang period. Its origin in China isstill unknown.4« 40 »

Land, People, and ReligionReligionReligion in China by the time of the Shangdynasty was made up of many elements.Ancestor worship was one of the manyfeatures of early Chinese religion. Ancestorworship was limited to the wealthier classesuntil the Han dynasty. Farmers and theirfamilies devoted their worship mainly tolocal gods asking for good crops and familyhealth. The various gods were honoredwith ceremonies, and sacrifices werecarried out by heads of families. One of therituals was divination, which often wasperformed to determine whether ancestorsdesired specific sacrifices or rituals. Associety became more organized, stateofficials, including the king, performedcertain rites and ceremonies.There was no official class of priests inancient China.5 But worship was conducted with help from an individual known« 41 »

According to legend, the use of tea was discovered byEmperor Shennong of China about 2737 B.C. Theearliest known mention of tea appeared in Chineseliterature of about A.D. 350. These workers areplanting tea in present-day China.

Discover Ancient Chinaas a shaman. Shamans enlisted the help ofcertain animals who were thought to have aspecial connection with the ancestorswhose advice and assistance were beingsought.6 Kings and emperors also assumedthe role of shaman.In the Shang dynasty, religion differedfrom place to place, each area having itsown local god. Many gods were the samegods with different names. Ultimately thegovernment made one god, Shangdi, theLord on High, the official god. Kings andministers were worshiped after their deathsbecause it was believed that they couldapproach Shangdi, the supreme god, onbehalf of the common people.In 1027 b.c., the Zhou dynasty conquered the Shang dynasty. Under the Zhouhuman sacrifice was officially forbidden.7Until then, humans as well as animalsincluding cattle, dogs, and pigs were sacrificed to the gods. Most of the humans« 44 »

Land, People, and Religionsacrificed were prisoners of war. Butvillagers may have fought and capturedpeople from other villages for humansacrifice.8 Human sacrifice was also madeduring burial ceremonies of kings. Thethousands of terra-cotta soldiers buriednear the First Emperor’s tomb may havebeen a substitute for the burial of actualsoldiers. The First Emperor had themassive warrior army constructed in orderto accompany him into the afterlife andprotect him thereA significant part of ancient Chinesereligion was based on certain philosophiesthat were more concerned with humanrelationships than with a person’s relationship to a personal god. The philosophiesaddressed the question of how to organizesociety and a person’s relationship withothers for his or her own good and thegreater good of the state.« 45 »

Discover Ancient ChinaPhilosophies: Legalism,Confucianism, and TaoismAncient China was home to three schoolsof philosophy that have affected thoughtand behavior throughout its history. Theseschools of philosophy are known asLegalism, Confucianism, and Taoism.LegalismLegalism is the belief that society must bebuilt on law and serve the interest of thestate. Legalism continued to exert a stronginfluence up to modern times and wasparticularly powerful in its effect on thegovernments of the Qin and Han dynasties.As Legalism was practiced, judges weresupposed to correctly identify a crime andits punishment as specifically set forth inlaw. Strict law must define the crime and itspunishment and not be subject to interpre9tation by the judge or other individuals.« 46 »

Land, People, and ReligionUnderlying Legalism is the belief in apowerful centralized state run by officialswho are appointed by a ruler who must beobeyed without question. The law, whichcould not be questioned, had to be madeknown to the public and administeredaccording to specific rules and regulations.By the time of the Han dynasty, the lawwas to be applied equally to all, commoners as well as the those in the nobility.But by the late Han dynasty, there weredistinctions based on rank in how the lawwas applied.ConfucianismAccording to Chinese tradition, Confuciuswas a thinker, political figure, educator.Confucius (551–479 b.c.), whose teachings led to a school of philosophy, livedduring the second half of the Zhou dynasty(1027–221 b.c.). His teachings have had aprofound effect on China throughout itshistory. Confucianism became the official« 47 »

Discover Ancient Chinaphilosophy in the Han dynasty. It dominated Chinese thought to the end of theempire in 1911.Little is known about Confucius’s life.Modern scholars base most of what theydo know on a collection of his sayings andstories about his life collected by hisfollowers that were written down afterConfucius’s death. This collection, calledthe Analects, was added to over thecenturies by other writers of philosophy.Confucius taught that man’s relationships with others begins in the family, fromfather to son, elder brother to youngerbrother. Good relationships within thefamily, beginning with those betweenfather and son, extend to one’s relationshipto strangers and finally to the relationshipbetween the ruler and his subjects. He didnot teach about a personal god or evenpromote a doctrine of religion. He didinclude in his teachings the doctrine of the« 48 »

Land, People, and ReligionMandate of Heaven and the belief inDestiny. The Mandate of Heaven statesthat Heaven calls for the most virtuousman to be China’s ruler. If that man loseshis virtue, he will in turn lose the Mandateof Heaven, and his dynasty will be overthrown. Destiny, beyond human control,dictated one’s condition in life by determining a person’s wealth and health.10Belief in the Mandate of Heaven andDestiny was central to Confucius’s teachingbecause it meant that people should behavein a way that fit in with their position inlife. Confucius did not believe that humansshould lead passive lives, however. Instead,he urged people to devote themselves toliving a moral life that followed the Way ofHeaven as taught by the ancient sages.11According to Confucius, every manhad the potential and duty to reach thesame state of virtue, or level of goodness,that the ancient sages had achieved. While« 49 »

Discover Ancient ChinaConfucius (center) is depicted on a visit to the Courtof Ch’u. No book definitely written by Confuciusexists. His disciples recorded his conversations andsayings in a book called the Analects.« 50 »

Land, People, and Religionacknowledging that Destiny was in controlof the human condition, he believed thathumans had the free will to choose to livegood lives.In Confucian thought, virtue couldonly be achieved within a carefully orderedsociety, which could only come aboutwhen selfishness and greed were overcomeby all people within that society. The wayto virtue was by achieving benevolence,which happened when people consideredothers before themselves.12 In order toknow virtue, it was the duty of every manto study the ancient sages, considered thesource of all virtue. People were able togain knowledge about these sages bystudying books, especially those known asthe Wu Jing (Wu Ching), or Five Classics.One of those books, called the Book ofChanges, includes ancient Chinese beliefsabout the universe. Another book that isentitled the Book of Rituals describes the« 51 »

Discover Ancient Chinarules governing all behavior betweenpeople. It also describes rites and rituals,including religious ceremonies such asthose honoring ancestors.13Mencius (or Mengzi), who lived from371 to 289 b.c., expanded upon theteachings of Confucius. Mencius taughtthat humans are basically good, but thatgoodness must be strengthened bypracticing rites and rituals. That practiceallowed one’s goodness to overcome theconstant threat of selfishness, consideredpart of human nature.TaoismA philosopher who lived at the same timeas Confucius was the father of a verydifferent school of thought. His teachingswere followed by many during the Handynasty even though Confucianism wasthe official philosophy. This philosopher isknown as Lao Zi (Lao Tzu). Lao Tzi wasborn in the sixth century b.c. and he was« 52 »

Land, People, and Religionacquainted with Confucius. His philosophy, known as Taoism, is contained in theLao Zi (Lao Tzu), or Daodejing (Tao TeChing). The Lao Zi, which translates as“Classic of the Way and Virtue,” is writtenin parables and verse. It calls for humans tolive in natural harmony with the Tao, orDao, which is considered a cosmic unitythat underlies all things. Taoism, unlikeConfucianism, teaches that the bestgovernment is the one that governs theleast.14 The less people strive, and the lessthe government interferes, the happier allwill be. Taoism is based on one’s acceptance of his or her natural state. In Taoism,striving to move ahead in society is considered harmful.Taoism also opposed the practice ofthe rites and ceremonies that were practiced by the followers of Confucius’steachings. According to tradition, in ameeting between Confucius and Lao Zi,« 53 »

Lao Tzi is depicted in this sixth centuryDiscoverofAncientimage. He was the founderTaoism. ChinaHe wrote a book that explained his beliefscalled the Tao Te Ching.« 54 »

Land, People, and ReligionLao Zi implied that the rites were only thewords of dead men and therefore useless.15Like Confucianism, Taoism soughtorder in one’s personal life as well as in thestate. But unlike Confucianism, Taoismtaught that the ruler must avoid actionssuch as honoring individuals or creatingitems that could lead to desire. A passagefrom the Daodejing makes this quite plain.There is no crime greater thanhaving too many desires; There is nodisaster greater than not being content;There is no misfortune greater than16being covetous.China was, and is, a land of manydifferent cultures. One reason why Chinesecivilization has endured can be traced tothe beliefs of its people and the teachingsof its philosophers.« 55 »

Chapter 4Family Life:EDUCATION,FOOD, CLOTHING,SHELTER« 56 »

Family Life: Education, Food, Clothing, ShelterIn ancient China, most families lived onfarms. The ancient Chinese farm wasgenerally small, only about fifteen acres.All the members of a family worked on afarm. Under the Zhou Dynasty, certainsections of a farmer’s land were set asidefor the nobility. The noble’s land wasworked by serfs, who were bound underthe feudal system to work on a farm butdid not own the land. They were subject tothe will of the landowner. Farming washard work, as farmers’ tools at the timewere mostly made of bone, wood, andstone. With the unification of China underthe Qin dynasty, however, feudalism wasabolished, people could own land, andindividuals were taxed by the government.The Development of the CalendarIt was essential for a farmer to know whento begin planting his crops. One of themost important functions of the emperor« 57 »

Discovering Ancient Chinawas to inform farmers of the proper time tobegin planting. During the Shang dynasty,the development of a calendar was alreadyunder way. In it, a week consisted of tendays, and each day was measured by ten“Heavenly Stems” and twelve “EarthlyBranches” in a recurring cycle of sixty days.By 104 b.c., during the Han dynasty, thefour seasons as we now know them were firstfixed according to a calenda

Discover Ancient China « 16 » C. hina is the birthplace of the world’s oldest continuous civilization, with a written history that began 3,500 years ago. Humans have lived in what is now China long before history was recorded Archae-ological evidence shows that humans who made tools were living in