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DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE WITHWEB 2.0 TECHNOLOGIES IN AN EFL CONTEXTLe Thi Thanh HoaBachelor of Arts (in English as a Foreign Language) - Hue UniversityMaster of Applied Linguistics - LaTrobe UniversityA thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy atThe University of Queensland in 2016School of Languages and Cultures

AbstractIntercultural English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) education requires a suitabletheoretical framework for the teaching of intercultural competence (IC). On the one hand,existing conceptualizations of IC in the intercultural communication literature are notalways helpful for language teachers; on the other, the language teaching literatureaddresses the inclusion of IC to a limited extent (Baker, 2015; Porto, 2013). By itsinterdisciplinary nature, intercultural EFL education requires a combination of compatibletheoretical approaches, and existing theories of IC should be adapted and combinedbased on their complementarity. Accordingly, a study on IC in EFL contexts might needthe integration of a developmental model (Bennett, 1993) and a component theory of IC(Byram, 1997); moreover, it should foreground language elements by referring to linguistictheories to understand the role of language in IC development.In the light of this argument, the present project adapted both Byram (1997) and Bennett(1993) as theoretical frameworks and investigated IC development in reference tofunctional linguists’ APPRAISAL (Martin & White, 2007) to gain insights into the affectivedimension encoded in informants’ language. Moreover, in response to the need of anauthentic environment for teaching intercultural communication in a university-level EFLcontext in Vietnam, the project explored the extent to which a Web 2.0 mediated learningdesign could contribute to EFL learners’ IC development.Employing a design-based research methodology, this study involved creating a Web 2.0mediated IC learning design for university-level EFL learners in Vietnam, testing andrefining it. Specifically, based on the pedagogical context of the case study and existingprinciples of intercultural education, a Facebook-mediated IC learning design was createdand integrated into the existing course, “Intercultural Communication”. It entailed threeiterative learning cycles of written chat between students and guests from other culturesabout cultural issues of interest to them, students’ written reflection on what they learnedand discussion with peers, all of which were posted on Facebook. The researcherimplemented this design over fifteen weeks and collected data from a nineteen studentclass. The data included the material posted on Facebook, follow-up interviews with focalstudents and student evaluations.With regard to theorizing intercultural communication, the study shows that the students’IC development was a process of languaging to create changes in cognition, affect andskills. Specifically, they used their linguistic and multimodal resources to articulate,formulate, exchange and create knowledge in chats with the guests and with peers, and ini

their written reflections. Via these processes they developed their skills of discovery andinteraction, and of interpreting and relating cultural phenomena. Languaging was also aprocess of expressing feelings and negotiating stances. Additionally, the process ofchange involved balancing cognitions and shifting feelings associated with thosecognitions. It was influenced by situational factors and personal traits. Accordingly, thestudents’ trajectories of IC development shifted dynamically through different states ofethnocentrism to a state of relativizing values underlying cultural difference.In pedagogical terms, the students’ changes in knowledge, feelings and skills suggest thatthe proposed learning design contributed to their IC development. The constructivistpedagogy underlying the design and the mediation of Web 2.0 facilitated the students’reflective thinking. Specifically, Facebook-mediated chats with guests gave the studentsintercultural experiences, made previously invisible cultural differences more visible, andthus triggered the students’ awareness of them. The students’ changes in IC wereattributed to their critical reflection which was scaffolded by teacher preparation, guidanceand feedback, by peers cooperation, and by empowerment from the guests. However, thefindings disclose several constraints of Web 2.0 and weaknesses of the learning design.The most salient are time management, and provision of feedback. Moreover, there mightbe a mismatch between Vietnamese students’ educational expectations and values, andWestern constructivist pedagogy involved in the learning design.Theoretically, the study offers insights into less-investigated aspects of IC and proposes auseful conceptualization of IC in EFL contexts. First, it illuminates a range of affectivestates associated with different cognitive configurations that are overlooked in commonlycited theories (e.g., Bennett, 1993; Byram, 1997). It also sheds light on the phenomena oflanguaging and of cognitive balancing in cognitive and affective adaptation which havebeen criticized as under-investigated. Second, it addresses the major weaknesses ofexisting IC conceptualizations, namely abstractness and lack of awareness of linguisticissues, by providing linguistic and non-linguistic evidence of IC development. Drawing onfindings about the interaction of these dimensions, individual trajectories are uncovered,revealing how EFL learners construct IC via languaging. Accordingly, the study proposes amore comprehensive model of IC that can be integrated into an EFL curriculum.Moreover, the project generates pedagogical principles for Web 2.0 mediated IC learningdesigns.Practically, the study demonstrates an example of how to create a Web 2.0 mediated IClearning design which can be flexibly adapted in similar contexts.ii

Declaration by authorThis thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously publishedor written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. Ihave clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have includedin my thesis.I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statisticalassistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professionaleditorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. Thecontent of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement ofmy research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of workthat has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in anyuniversity or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any,have been submitted to qualify for another award.I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the UniversityLibrary and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, thethesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School.I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with thecopyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyrightpermission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis.iii

Publications during candidatureNo publications.Publications included in this thesisNo publications included.Contributions by others to the thesisNo contributions by others.Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degreeNone.iv

AcknowledgementsFirst of all, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisors at the University ofQueensland for their valuable advice, tolerance and support in many ways without which Icould not have reached the end of my PhD journey. For me, their guidance is also awonderful example of how a teacher can help their students construct their knowledge andunderstanding of the issues under study. Despite many limitations in this thesis due to mycompetence and other factors, I have learned a great deal from their expertise and ways ofguiding me in learning. Accordingly I have grown professionally and personally during myPhD candidature. I am also thankful to Dr Paul Moore for his insightful comments thathelped to me shape my arguments further, and for the rewarding experience I had as atutor in his course of Intercultural Communication at the University of Queensland.I am particularly indebted to all the students and the guest speakers who voluntarilyparticipated in this project. They provided me with rich information and were generous inoffering help and clarification whenever I needed it. My thanks also go to my co-teacher inthe course, and the staff from the Training Department who helped me schedule theclasses and allowed me access the students’ end-of-course evaluation.I am grateful to the Australian government and the University of Queensland for theirgenerosity in offering me the International Postgraduate Research Scholarship and the UQCentennial Scholarship. I would also like to thank the staff at the School of Languages andCultures for their support during my candidature, especially Esther Lovely for her help withthe references. It was also my pleasure to have company of kind-hearted housemates andother PhD students in my office.Finally, this humble work is dedicated to my family, particularly my husband anddaughters, with my gratitude for their endless support and love.v

KeywordsIntercultural communication, Intercultural competence, Web 2.0, Facebook, English-as-aForeign-Language (EFL), VietnameseAustralian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC)ANZSRC code: 200401 Applied Linguistics and Educational Linguistics, 50%ANZSRC code: 200209 Multicultural, Intercultural and Cross-cultural Studies, 30%ANZSRC code: 200102 Communication Technology and Digital Media Studies 20%Fields of Research (FoR) ClassificationFoR code: 2002 Cultural Studies, 50%FoR code: 2004 Linguistics, 50%vi

Table of ContentsAbstract. iDeclaration by author. iiiAcknowledgements. vTable of Contents . viiList of Tables . xiiList of Figures . xiiiList of Abbreviations used in the thesis. xivChapter 1 INTRODUCTION.11.1 Introduction.11.2 Background and context of the study .11.3 Aims and research questions .31.4 Structure of the thesis.4Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW.62.1 Introduction.62.2 The intercultural speaker .62.3 Intercultural competence .82.3.1 Conceptualization of IC .82.3.2 Characteristics of intercultural competence.92.3.2.1 Intercultural Competence as multidimensional: Byram’s model of IC.92.3.2.2 Intercultural Competence as developmental: Bennett’s Developmental Modelof Intercultural sensitivity (DMIS).142.3.2.3 Intercultural Competence as contextual .182.3.2.4 Intercultural competence as idiosyncratic.202.3.3 Summary .202.4 Adaption of models for the present project .212.4.1 The compatibility of Byram’s theory of teaching and learning IC and Bennett’sDMIS .212.4.2 Perspectives complementary to the two theories .222.4.3 Summary .282.5 The teaching and learning of IC.292.5.1 Developmental constructivist approach to IC teaching and learning .292.5.2 Five principles: Active process of teaching and learning IC .29vii