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However, he was soon flooded with intense feelings of despair, grief, and guilt over the deaths of his companions. In recent decades, a vast number of studies have found evidence that social support is favorably related to overall physical health (Gleason & Masumi, 2015; Uchino & Birmingham, 2011). When you eat, you are constantly mixing food andsaliva and moving it about in your mouth, so the stimulus is constantly changing. For example, naïve viewers “conclude” that the boy on the right is much larger than the other, when in fact he is merely closer. Hence, subtle differences between studies in sampling or the specific personality tests used can lead to inconsistent findings (South et al.,2015). Heritability can be estimated for any trait. Goldberger & S. Clinical researchers collected extensive data; held numerous conferences; and engaged in heated debates about whether various syndromes should be added, eliminated, redefined, or renamed (Sachdev, 2013). Schwartz, K. Other theorists take issue with this argument, pointing outthat traits with a strong genetic component are not necessarily unchangeable (Flynn, 2007; Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005). And culture has a dramatic impact on whether people remember their dreams and how they interpret and feel about their dreams. However, more recent research suggests that in relationships that remain intact, theerosion of passionate love tends to be gradual and modest, with levels remaining fairly high in most couples (Fehr, 2015; O’Leary et al., 2012). B., Willinger, J. Proximity Things that are near one another seem to belong together. This “mixing” of stages and the fact that the transitions between stages are gradual rather than abrupt call into questionthe value of organizing cognitive development in terms of stages (Bjorklund, 2012). Evaluating Kohlberg’s Theory How has Kohlberg’s theory fared in research? Humanistic theorists also maintain that a person’s subjective view of the world is more important than objective reality (Wong, 2006). For example, they assert that physical appearance is aninfluential determinant of attraction because certain aspects of good looks can be indicators of sound health, good genes, and 430 Chapter 12 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. Leviton (Eds.), Handbook of clinical health psychology: Vol 2. When it comes to behavioral traits, the answer clearly is no. Clearly, researchers assessing the stability ofpersonality in adulthood have reached very different conclusions. Bush and President Barack Obama, and it has guided government policy in a variety of areas. This principle is somewhat vague in that it’s often difficult to spell out what makes a figure “good.” Some theorists maintain that goodness is largely a matter of simplicity, asserting thatpeople tend to organize forms in the simplest way possible (see Figure 4.18(d)). A good reason for taking notes in your own words, rather than verbatim, is that: A. In recent decades, however, research findings have led theorists to shift toward more cognitive explanations of conditioning. All eight stages in Erikson’s theory are charted in Figure 10.5.We describe the first four childhood stages here and discuss the remaining stages in the upcoming sections on adolescence and adulthood. This normal presleep process can take your mind off your difficulties. “I like to feel that my life is up there,” she says. One key problem with this idea is that aspects of cognitive style have proven difficult to defineand measure. However, many psychologists found these theoretical orientations unappealing. Studies have found that teams flying westward perform significantly better than teams flying eastward in professional baseball (Recht, Lew, & Schwartz, 1995) (see Figure 5.2) and college football (Worthen & Wade, 1999). Audrey, a 16-year-old junior inhigh school, takes her cell phone with her everywhere, yet she is loathe to actually talk on her phone. P., Laurence, J., & Lynn, S. In other words, you evaluate what you have relative to what the people around you have and relative to what you expected to have. Although some overlap exists between the two professions, the training and educationalrequirements the evolution of psyChology Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. an avoidance-avoidance conflict. Themes related to psychology as a field of study Professional specialties Clinical psychology Counseling psychology Psychology is empirical— School psychology it is based on objective observations made through research. Correctsolutions, two of which are shown in Figure 8.11, extend outside the imaginary boundary. the size of their action potentials. Patients who are upset and worried about their illness may simply forget to report some symptoms or to ask questions they meant to ask. At first, the dog or rat runs only when shocked (escape learning). They all say that they’dlove to go, but they have other commitments and they can’t. Joseph & P. Li, N. The ego and its defenses. Blaming a friend’s business failure on poor business smarts as opposed to a poor economy will have a great impact on how you view your friend—not to mention on whether you’ll lend him or her money in the future. Hakala (Eds.), Applyingscience of learning in education: Infusing psychological science into the curriculum. For example, we could athistory. Boldrini, M., Santiago, A. Kiang, L., & Buchanan, C. reality The basis for this belief is that the most obvious effect of sleep deprivation is increased sleepiness, which sounds pretty harmless. Hence, actors are more likely thanobservers to locate the cause of their behavior in the situation. Let’s begin by looking at events that occur before birth, during prenatal development. Andrey Popov/Shutterstock.com regular exercise has many diverse physical and psychological benefits that can promote enhanced health and greater longevity. After all, primitive animals that areincapable of complex thought seem to have little difficulty recognizing their emotions. Graphs can provide an even better overview of the data. Frequency Theory Other theorists in the 19th century proposed an alternative theory of pitch perception, called frequency theory (Rutherford, 1886). American Journal of Human Biology, 24, 361–371. Tanner(Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century. And in the long run, alcohol and various recreational drugs can elevate one’s risk for infectious diseases; respiratory, pulmonary, and cardiovascular diseases; liver disease; gastrointestinal problems; cancer; neurological disorders; and pregnancy complications (see Chapter 5).M., Vega, W. The Rorschach test, for instance, consists of a series of ten inkblots. 21. Maddux and Galinsky found that the degree to which people adapted to foreign cultures was responsible for the association between living abroad and creativity. overestimating the improbable Let’s examine another issue that frequently crops up in working withprobabilities. are usually constructed by experts or authorities in a specific field. They provide color-coded, hierarchically organized overviews that create “snapshots” of the chapters that allow you to quickly see the relationships between ideas and sections. Yes, they all achieved great prominence, albeit in different ways at different times.ATTRIBUTION Basic processes Attributions are inferences that people draw about the causes of events and behaviors. In this drawing the cerebral hemispheres have been “pulled apart” to reveal the corpus callosum, the band of fibers that connects the right and left halves of the brain. These hormones regulate a variety of physical functions andaffect many Other research with humans suggests that oxytocin fosters aspects of behavior. Freud’s (1901, 1924, 1940) psychoanalytic theory grew out of his decades of interactions with his clients. Rosenberg (Eds.), Community mental health: Challenges for the 21st century. The power of similarity effects provides the foundation for some of theInternet’s most successful online dating sites. The preoperational period extends roughly from age 2 to age 7. Hundreds of outcome studies collectively suggest that insight therapy is superior to placebo treatment and that the beneficial effects of therapy are reasonably durable. Participants’ recall accuracy was pretty dismal after only 15 seconds.Work stress and subsequent risk of Internet addiction among information technology engineers in Taiwan. Fogel (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of infant development. The goal of cognitive therapy is to change clients’ negative thoughts and maladaptive beliefs (Wright et al., 2014). In this case, the pain you have experienced from dental drilling is the US.Thus, normality and abnormality exist on a continuum. Given this function, the law in our society has something to say about many issues related to abnormal behavior. the conclusion was that most children fall into one of three temperamental categories: “easy,” “difficult,” or “slow to warm up.” 2. In modern America, the tendency toovereat and exercise too little is easy to understand (Henderson & Brownell, 2004). This method will work for problem 5, but there also is a simpler solution (A – C), which is the only solution for problem 6. Key concepts Interactions Fitness refers to the reproductive success of an organism relative to the population. Fixation can be caused byexcessive gratification of needs at a particular stage or by excessive frustration of those needs. They noted a host of ways in which the color red is associated with romance (red hearts on Valentine’s day), lust (red-light districts), and sexual liaisons (the redness of aroused sexual organs). Dijksterhuis, A. Cognition and learning. Your sweat glands arereleasing perspiration; your heartbeat is quickening; and muscular movements are enabling your hand to find the popcorn, and more or less successfully, lift it to your mouth. Sound waves Cochlea ochlea Stirrup Eardrum Auditory canal all The Cubists applied feature analysis to canvas, the Surrealists toyed with reality, and Escher tried to stimulatethinking about perception. widely assumed. Young/Shutterstock.com people whether they identify as heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual, but one survey that dug deeper found that roughly three-quarters of those who acknowledged at least some same-sex attractions or behavior did not self-identify as gay or bisexual (Chandra et al., 2011). RealityLiterally, schizophrenia means “split mind.” However, when Eugen Bleuler coined the term in 1911, he was referring to the fragmentation of thought processes seen in the disorder—not to a “split personality.” Unfortunately, writers in the popular media often erroneously equate the split-mind notion with split personality. Although presented in ascrambled order, each of the words in the list fit into one of four categories: animals, men’s names, vegetables, or professions. Participants The persons or animals whose behavior is systematically observed in a study. Tulving & F. human Development aCross the life span 341 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. Prevalence of mental health andsubstance use disorders among homeless and lowincome housed mothers. Magazines, novels, movies, and television shows are saturated with sexual activity and innuendo. Some people are right-brained, while others are left-brained. Reality CheCk Misconception Seeking psychotherapy is a sign of weakness; people should be able to deal with theirproblems. The diagram lists some of the more important factors in each category (including some that are not discussed in the text due to space limitations). L., Hagan, C. The last dance: Encountering death and dying. Thus, Cannon espoused a different explanation of emotion. Let’s take a look at what researchers have learned about the many typesof changes that occur during these sleep stages (Carskadon & Dement, 2011; Peigneux et al., 2012). It is widely believed that creativity usually involves sudden flashes of insight and great leaps of imagination. Life also seems to constantly demand dethe initial comments made by American subjects referred more to focal objects in the scenes, whereasthe initial comments made by Japanese subjects referred more to background elements cisions. Let’s use some of the concepts introduced in the main body of the chapter to analyze the shortcomings of anecdotal evidence. It demands data and documentation. resistance and Transference How would you expect Mr. N to respond to the therapist’ssuggestion that he was in competition with his father for the sexual attention of his mother? Furthermore, the genuine group differences noted are relatively small (Hyde, 2014). doi:10.1177/1745691612460685 In M. Austin State University Robin L. The purity or complexity of a sound influences how timbre is perceived. These signals moved a pen ona chart recorder, much like an electroencephalograph (EEG) traces brain waves. 39 6. The ultimate reward, a degree, may be years away. The power of similarity effects provides the foundation for online matching sites. In other words, when passengers see that traffic is heavy or that the driving task has become complicated, they reduce the rateand complexity of their communication and try to help the driver navigate through the situation. The lines connecting the nodes are the pathways. The impact of genetic makeup depends on environment, and the impact of environment depends on genetic makeup. In N. Rowling), practical intelligence (Jeff Bezos), and social intelligence (JimmyFallon). The Research enterprise in Psychology 3. W., Mogg, K., May, J., Richards, A., & Mathews, A. Why is this so? Thus, they ignore, deny, or twist reality to protect and perpetuate their self-concept. Attention Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. (e) Continuity: You tend to group these dots in a way that produces a smoothpath rather than an abrupt shift in direction. Naps tend to be more beneficial when they are rich in slow-wave sleep or REM sleep (Mednick & Drummond, 2009). Deymos.HR/Shutterstock.com The Capilano suspension bridge, shown here, was used in the study by Dutton and Aron (1974) to manipulate autonomic arousal in a clever test of the twofactor theory of emotion. Luh (1922) had participants memorize lists of nontime to determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned it sense syllables and then measured their retention with either before. Little direct evidence has been found to support the notion that each hemisphere has its own mode of thinking, or cognitive style(Corballis, 2007). However, the body has a second communication system that is also important to behavior. assess the evidence of the long-term benefits of meditation. Krakauer’s story is also filled with strong emotions. As children master concrete operations, they develop a variety of new problemsolving capacities. (Based on data in Brownell &Wadden, 2000). Farrington, D. Thus, evolutionary psycholo- seen in many animal species that do not gists explain gender differences in spatial exhibit the sex-based division of labor Can the set of blocks on the left be rotated to match the set at the right? The person in the purchase: Narcissistic consumers prefer products that positively distinguishthem. He and Branson had just become the first people ever to cross the Atlantic in a hot-air balloon. 471 9. Rationalization. was spawned by a cultural milieu that viewed the self as an independent, rational being. he can’t study until his apartment is arranged perfectly. When Sharma’s co-workers start to ignore her complaints, they are trying toextinguish the behavior (which had been positively reinforced when it won sympathy). Textbook study RefeRences Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. she tries to explain, “I need a new challenge, a new mountain to climb. This influential behaviorist explained personality development in terms of operant conditioning, especially the process ofreinforcement. Disturbances in the neural circuits using GABA and serotonin may play a role in some anxiety disorders. During the first week, the boys got to know the other members of their own group through typical camp activities. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press. In addition to delusions, the schizophrenic person’s train ofthought deteriorates. Most of this chapter is devoted to an examination of memory encoding, storage, and retrieval. taste: the Gustatory System 4.4 Key Learning Goals Describe the stimulus and receptors for taste, and review research on individual differences in taste sensitivity. Heavey, C. Archives of General Psychology, 48, 1089–1096. His workwith patients persuaded Freud of the existence of what he called the unconscious. Journal of Child Language, 31, 883–914. The door-in-the-face technique involves making a large request that is likely to recognizing contrast effects: It’s all relative be turned down as a way to increase the chances that people will agree to a smaller request later (seeFigure 4.41). New York, NY: Jason Aronson. However, until relatively recently, research demonstrated just the opposite. Dali often used reversible figures to enhance the ambiguity of his surreal visions. A., Abramowitz, J., Alcolado, G. Table 1.2 Critical Thinking Skills Discussed in This Application Skill Description looking for alternative explanationsfor findings and events in evaluating explanations, the critical thinker explores whether there are other explanations that could also account for the findings or events under scrutiny. Behaviorism flourishes with the work of Skinner Evolutionary psychology gains prominence Evolutionary psychologists argue that natural selection favors behaviorsthat enhance an organism’s reproductive success. Developing sound study habits People tend to assume that academic performance in college is largely determined by students’ intelligence or general mental ability. Child Development, 84, 133–142. They exchanged 359 letters before their friendship and theoretical alliance were torn apart in 1913.F., Pikhart, H., Peasey, A., Chen, S., & Tsai, M. Viewed as a whole, a movie has a property (motion) that isn’t evident in any of its parts (the individual frames). You give in to a roommate or spouse to bring an unpleasant argument to an end. New evidence about language and cognitive development based on a longitudinal study: Hypotheses forintervention. For example, chronic snorting of cocaine can damage nasal membranes. The series completion problems and the analogy problems in Figure 8.3 are examples of problems of inducing structure. Gender differences are group differences that indicate little about individuals because of the great overlap between the groups. Couples ormarital therapy involves the treatment of both partners in a committed, intimate relationship, in which the main focus is on relationship issues. clarify the relationship between behavioral factors and aiDs. 476 As just discussed, most people seem to operate under the impression that the effects of stress are entirely negative, but this most certainly isnot the case. Thus, external attributions for others’ behavior require more thought and effort, which makes them less common than personal attributions. After watching the transformation shown, a preoperational child will usually answer that the taller beaker contains more water. International Nursing Review, 59, 447–457. It is understandable,then, that experimenter bias is a possible source of error in research. J., this one is for you Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. It seems likely that multiple factors have contributed (Bellis, Downing, & Ashton. Studies have found that a number of benefits can be derived from playing video games, including the much-maligned first-person shootergames that are extremely violent (Granic, Lobel, & Engels, 2014). Discuss efforts to expand the delivery of clinical services through technology and the merits of blending approaches to therapy. If you can spot an analogy between problems, you may be able to use the solution to a previous problem to solve a current one. Sprecher, A. the HumanSexual Response Intensity of arousal Intensity of arousal Assuming people are motivated to engage in sexual activity, exactly what happens to them physically? The unconscious contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness, but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior. Suicide threats areoften a last-ditch cry for help. The REM stage is also marked by irregular breathing and pulse rate. Theorists use the term reaction range to refer to these genetically determined limits on IQ (or other traits). This habit will allow you to take advantage of your circadian rhythm, so you’ll be trying to fall asleep when your body is primed to cooperate. C.,Yu, H., Huang, Z., & Lu, J. Signal relations One theorist who was especially influential in demonstrating the importance of cognitive factors in classical conditioning was Robert Rescorla (1978, 1980). decreased their ratings of their own attractiveness. Self-efficacy refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead toexpected outcomes. Olfactory receptors and coding in mammals. Psychoanalysis. Touch. competency Competency (or “fitness” in some states) refers to a defendant’s capacity to stand trial. From his experiments on himself, Ebbinghaus (1885) concluded that forgetting is extremely rapid immediately after the original learning and then levels off.Odors make a surprisingly great contribution to the perception of flavor Chapter 4 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. In their preschool years, such children display more persistence, curiosity, self-reliance, and leadership and have better peer relations (Weinfeld et al., 2008). Greg wasn’t anybody’s idea of a likely criminal. APPLICATIONS To fostersound study habits, you should devise a written study schedule, find a place to study where you can concentrate, and use active reading techniques to select the most important ideas from the material you read. However, stimulated by the demands of World War II, clinical psychology grew rapidly as a profession, starting in the 1950s. Albert Ellis(1973, 1987, 2001) calls this phenomenon catastrophic thinking. Conditional love B. Dark adaptation is virtually complete in about 30 minutes, with considerable progress occurring in the first 10 minutes. The people from this preliterate culture did a fair job of identifying the emotions portrayed in the pictures (see Figure 9.18), leading to theconclusion that the facial expressions associated with basic emotions are universally recognized across cultures. In the case of Mount Everest, perhaps the most obvious motive is simply the satisfaction of conquering the world’s tallest peak. Neurocognitive impairments in schizophrenia: Their character and their role in symptom formation.Achievement motivation revisited: New longitudinal data to demonstrate its predictive power. If so, they might mislabel their emotion as lust rather than fear and infer that they were attracted to the woman. Darwinian theory, functionalism, and the first American psychological revolution. Like parents, peers can foster either prejudice or egalitarianattitudes, depending on the views they endorse. This notion of “brainedness” has even been used to explain occupational choice. The exact percentage is not as important as the recognition that the syndrome is not rare and that it is a global problem. Langrod (Eds.), Substance abuse: A comprehensive textbook. Although the concept of heritability isnot as simple as it first appears, it is absolutely clear that IQ is influenced by heredity. A twelve-item Practice Test is provided for each chapter that should give you a realistic assessment of your mastery of that chapter and valuable practice in taking multiplechoice tests. Monocular Cues Monocular depth cues are clues about distance based on theimage in either eye alone. choose from the following theorists: (a) alfred Binet, (b) howard gardner, (c) arthur Jensen, (d) lewis terman, (e) robert sternberg, and (f) David Wechsler. G., & Greene, R. personality 409 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 995–1008. Defense Mechanism Definition Repression Keeping

distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious Projection Attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another These memories consist of archetypes, which are emotionally charged thought forms that have universal meaning. 4 2 0 Color and sexual attraction. Leon goes to the health club for a rare workout and pushes himselfso hard that his entire body aches and he throws up. Wooley Amygdala Shortcut facilitates instant response “think” about the input. 1 2 3 Figure 12.12 Stimuli used in Asch’s conformity studies. In psychology as a whole, no other school of thought has been so influential—with the exception of behaviorism, to which we turn next. International Journalof Obesity, 28, 858–869. The media have been flooded with reports of adults accusing their parents, teachers, and neighbors of horrible child abuse decades earlier, based on previously repressed memories of these travesties. Desensitization means that people show muted reactions to real violence. A-13 Chapter 14 Practice Test 1. dreams provide anoutlet for energy invested in socially undesirable impulses. Helson, R., Jones, C., & Kwan, V. systematic desensitization. We’ll also discuss their strengths and weaknesses. .” 60 PeRSoNAL APPLiCATioN: Understanding Personality Assessment 411 CRiTiCAL ThiNkiNG APPLiCATioN: Hindsight in Everyday Analyses of Personality 414 Chapter 3 TheBiological Bases of Behavior Chapter 12 Social Behavior 64 418 PeRSoNAL APPLiCATioN: Evaluating The Concept of “Two Minds in One” 99 CRiTiCAL ThiNkiNG APPLiCATioN: Building Better Brains: The Perils of Extrapolation 102 PeRSoNAL APPLiCATioN: Understanding Prejudice 449 CRiTiCAL ThiNkiNG APPLiCATioN: Analyzing Credibility andSocial Influence Tactics 452 Chapter 4 Sensation and Perception PeRSoNAL APPLiCATioN: Appreciating Art and Illusion 139 CRiTiCAL ThiNkiNG APPLiCATioN: Recognizing Contrast Effects: It’s All Relative 142 PeRSoNAL APPLiCATioN: Improving Coping and Stress Management 482 CRiTiCAL ThiNkiNG APPLiCATioN: Thinking Rationally AboutHealth Statistics and Decisions 486 Chapter 5 Variations in Consciousness Chapter 14 Psychological Disorders 106 146 Chapter 13 Stress, Coping, and Health 456 490 PeRSoNAL APPLiCATioN: Addressing Practical Questions About Sleep and Dreams 176 CRiTiCAL ThiNkiNG APPLiCATioN: Is Alcoholism a Disease? ECT patients who recover fromtheir depression and do not relapse report great improvements in the quality of their lives (McCall et al., 2013). doi:10.1002/smi.2589 Gluck, M. People rely heavily on their sense of sight, and they virtually equate it with knowing what is trustworthy (seeing is believing). Businessmen are expected to wear suits and ties. a/Shu sseev na Eli tterstock.com People think they can do several things simultaneously, but in reality they are switching their attention back and forth among various tasks. doi:10.1017 /CBO9781139003872.002 RefeRences Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. The correlation coefficient is a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables. Let’s examinesome of the highlights in this sequence and how fixation might occur. Fox-Kales, E. Stimuli are contiguous if they occur together in time and space. theories of Hypnosis Although a number of theories have been developed to explain hypnosis, it is still not well understood. too many different professions involved. For example, when scientistsamputated the third finger in an owl monkey, the part of its cortex that formerly responded to the third finger gradually became responsive to the second and fourth fingers (Kaas, 2000). However, treatment is also provided by other types of therapists (see Table 15.1). Resilience to loss and chronic grief: A prospective study from preloss to 18-monthspostloss. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych -010213-115100. H., Kim, S. J., Owen, J. Unfortunately, after patients stop taking antipsychotic medication, about 70% relapse within a year (van Kammen, Hurford, & Marder, 2009). By preventing axons from Dendrites Soma Myelin sheath Axon Terminal buttons and synapses Figure 3.1 Structure of the neuron.For instance, the French Impressionists of the 19th century did not want to re-create the photographic “reality” of a scene. (b) When the axon is stimulated, there is a brief jump in a neuron’s voltage, resulting in a spike on the oscilloscope recording of the neuron’s electrical activity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(2), 67–70. Theautonomic motor system and the hypothalamus. (c) A frequency polygon is plotted over the histogram. In fact, one of the mnemonic devices covered in this Application—the method of loci—was 252 7.7 rEflEcting on thE chaptEr’S thEmES One of our integrative themes—the idea that people’s experience of the world is subjective—stood head andshoulders above the rest in this chapter. The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. Consequently, the therapist simply designs a program to eliminate the compulsive gambling. They call this process spreading activation within a semantic network. Aust, S., Stasch, J., Jentschke, S., Härtwig,E. However, a more recent estimate that the capacity of STM is fou

Psychology themes and variations 10th edition free pdf books online However, he was soon flooded with intense feelings of despair, grief, and guilt over the deaths of his companions. In recent decades, a vast number of studies have found evidence that social support is favorably related to overall physical health (Gleason & Masumi, 2015; Uchino .