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PhilosophySecond Editionby Jay StevensonA Pearson Education Company

Copyright 2002 by Jay StevensonAll rights reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. No patentliability is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained herein.Although every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and author assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is anyliability assumed for damages resulting from the use of information containedherein. For information, address Alpha Books, 201 West 103rd Street, Indianapolis,IN 46290.THE COMPLETE IDIOT’S GUIDE TO and Design are registered trademarksof Pearson Education, Inc.International Standard Book Number: 0-02-864338-0Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 200109941904030287654321Interpretation of the printing code: The rightmost number of the first series ofnumbers is the year of the book’s printing; the rightmost number of the secondseries of numbers is the number of the book’s printing. For example, a printingcode of 02-1 shows that the first printing occurred in 2002.Printed in the United States of AmericaNote: This publication contains the opinions and ideas of its author. It is intendedto provide helpful and informative material on the subject matter covered. It is soldwith the understanding that the author and publisher are not engaged in renderingprofessional services in the book. If the reader requires personal assistance oradvice, a competent professional should be consulted.The author and publisher specifically disclaim any responsibility for any liability,loss, or risk, personal or otherwise, which is incurred as a consequence, directly orindirectly, of the use and application of any of the contents of this book.Publisher: Marie Butler-KnightProduct Manager: Phil KitchelManaging Editor: Jennifer ChisholmAcquisitions Editor: Mike SandersDevelopment Editor: Suzanne LeVertSenior Production Editor: Christy WagnerCopy Editor: Drew PattyIllustrator: Jody SchaefferCover/Book Designer: Trina WurstIndexer: Julie Bess

Contents at a GlancePart 1:Part 2:Part 3:The Nuts and Bolts of Philosophy11 The Big PictureAn overview of philosophy that shows what it’s for andwhat it’s about.32 Being ThereHow ontology and metaphysics relate to the idea of God.93 What There Is to Know About KnowingEpistemology, including empiricism, rationalism,and idealism.174 How to ActEthics and the significance of individualism vs. collectivism.27Ancient and Medieval Philosophy355 Golden OldiesThe pre-Socratics, the sophists, and Socrates get theball rolling.376 The Philosopher KingPlato’s ideas about truth and knowledge set the tone foryears to come.497 A Sense of PurposeAristotle’s logic and teleology provide an influentialmethod of thought.598 Ancient HardheadsHellenistic philosophy: stoicism, skepticism, and Epicureanism.719 God and KnowledgeNeoplatonism and scholasticism during the Middle Ages.81Eastern Philosophy9310 Far Eastern PhilosophyConfucius and Taoism in ancient China.9511 Indian PhilosophyFrom Hinduism to Buddhism to Gandhi.10512 Middle Eastern Religious PhilosophyMonotheism, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.113

Part 4:Part 5:Making Progress12313 People People (Renaissance Humanism)Renaissance humanists rethink the classics.12514 Science Rises from the MudBacon, Hobbes, Descartes, and Newton separate matterfrom metaphysics.13515 Men and Women of SubstanceSpinoza, Leibniz, and Cavendish say why matter can think.14516 Learning by ObservingBritish empiricism leads to new ideas about human nature.15517 Light on the SubjectThe French Enlightenment brings about big changes inthe name of reason.16718 Wheeling and IdealingGerman idealism reconciles the mind and reality.17519 Ideas of FreedomMill, Marx, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche talk aboutfreedom and determinism.187Modern Philosophy19720 New Fields of Thought: Psych, Sosh, and AnthroFreud, Jung, Weber, and Durkheim found the newsocial sciences.19921 Works for MePragmatism puts America on the philosophical map.20922 The New LogicThe analytic philosophy of Frege, Russell, and Wittgensteinblends logic, language, and math.21723 Let’s Get CriticalCritical theory exposes everything wrong with capitalistsociety.22724 To Be or Not To BePhenomenology and existentialism rethink humanconsciousness.23525 Structuring New IdeasStructuralism looks at the systems behind language,culture, and the unconscious.243

Part 6:Knowledge Now25326 Pomo SapiencePost-modernism finds too much and not enough meaning.25527 Women Get WiseFeminism puts women in the picture.26528 The Shift Is OnNew Age looks ahead to higher global consciousness.275AppendixesA Words for the WiseB Further Reading: More Food for ThoughtIndex285295297

ContentsPart 1: The Nuts and Bolts of Philosophy1 The Big Picture13Why Ask Why? .4You Are What You Think .4A Slice of Life .5Is You Ism or Is You Ain’t My Philosophy? .5How the Parts Fit Together .62 Being There9The Myth-Math of Existence .10To Order Is to Understand .10Enter Metaphysics .11Is There a God? .11Perfection Is Truth .12Being Leads to Knowing .13Being and Thinking .13Dualism vs. Materialism .13Ways to Be .143 What There Is to Know About Knowing17A Time of Crisis .18Descartes’s Reason .18Look Ma, No Senses! .19Getting Testy .19Can We Get There from Here? .20Going Down: Deduction .20Going Up: Induction .21Double-Checking Your Hypothesis .22The Ping-Pong Ball Called Dialectic .22Pro or Con? .23Both Sides Now .23Can He or Kant He? Combining Reason and Experience .24Can History Think? .25Marx on the Mind .25

4 How to Act27Me vs. Us .28Good Harmony .28The “We” Culture .28Me First .29Why I’m So Important .30Religion’s Part in Individualism .30Truth and Me .31Science and Me .32Capitalism and Me .32Philosopher See, Philosopher Do .33Part 2: Ancient and Medieval Philosophy5 Golden Oldies3537It’s Not About Us .38Earth, Wind, and Fire .38The Math and Music Man .39Who’s a Monkey’s Uncle? .40Out of His Senses .40Virtue’s in the Eye of the Beholder .40It’s All Relative .41Double Standard .42What’s Fair Is Fair—or Is It? .42Politics as Usual .43“Knowledge Is Virtue” .44Socrates, a Pain in the Protagoras .45Rebuilding Knowledge .466 The Philosopher King49Politics’ Loss Was Philosophy’s Gain .50Philosophy Through Dialogue .51What’s the Big Idea? .51Finding the Ideal .52Understanding the Ideal World .52It’s Logical .52The Light at the End of the Tunnel .53Remembering Truth .55Immortal Souls .55The True Sciences .56

viii The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Philosophy, Second EditionLiving Up to Perfection .56The Republic—Plato’s Paradise .56Rulers, Soldiers, and Tradespeople .57Better Than Democracy or Tyranny .577 A Sense of Purpose59Bad Form .60Change Has Purpose .61Changing Beliefs About Change .61Aristotle vs. Darwin .62Born to Think .63Natural Soul .63For a Good Cause .64Why It Happened .64Aristotle’s Mental Breakdown .65Aristotle’s Categories .66The Golden Mean .67A Legacy Up for Grabs .688 Ancient Hardheads71Who Cares? .72It’s All in the Mind .72People Are Scum .73A Twist on Fate .73Don’t Worry, Be Happy .74Why Suffer? .74The Gods Make Us Crazy .75It’s All in the Atoms .75Born Free .76Not Their Scene .76Alma Maters .77Who Knows? .78Are You Hallucinating? .78Curb Your Dogma .79The Seeds of Doubt .799 God and Knowledge81Faith Meets Reason .82God Thinks of Everything .82Words Get in the Way .83The Hebrew Bible Goes Greek .83

ContentsGetting a Read on Things .83If It’s Written Down, It Must Be Important .84Time Warp .84It All Adds Up to One .85A Private Line to God .86You Can’t Blame God .86The Reason for Evil .87Getting With It, or Getting in the Way .87Philosophy Goes to School .88Aristotle Goes Islamic .88Proving God Exists .89Logic Chopping .90A Real Controversy .90Sidling Up to the Big Questions .91Shaving Explanations .91Part 3: Eastern Philosophy10 Far Eastern Philosophy9395A Gentleman and a Scholar .96We’re All in This Together .96Leading by Example .97Governing Wise-Li .97Just a Little Respect .98Working with Tradition .98A Good Mind-Set .99Respecting What You Do .99Confucius vs. Confusion .99Philosophy for the Well En-Tao’d .100Going With the Flow .100Worry Less, Live Longer .101The More Things Change, the More They Stay the Same .102Philosophy or Fortune-Telling? .10311 Indian Philosophy105Above the Suffering .106Karma Chameleons .106Hindu Castes .107Practice Makes Perfect .107Hindu Duty .108Is Karma a Good Idea? .108ix

xThe Complete Idiot’s Guide to Philosophy, Second EditionThe Awakened One .108Freeing the Self from Itself .109The Eightfold Path .110Budding Buddhism .111Fighting with Peace .111You’ve Got to Admire His Moksa .11112 Middle Eastern Religious Philosophy113One God .113Who’s Got the Power? .114Somebody Up There Likes Me .114By the Book .115Sharing the Wrath .115Evil Ways .115Explaining Evil Under a Just God .116The End Is Near .117History Is Us .117You Always Hurt the Ones You Love .118Brand X: Newer, Bigger, Brighter .118Come Again? .118Feeling Their Pain .119The Latest Word .119The Five Pillars of Islam .120One God, Many Points of View .120Part 4: Making Progress13 People People (Renaissance Humanism)123125Philosophy Reborn .126“Learned Ignorance” .127Will the Circle Be Unbroken? .127We Are the World .128Change Across the Board .129Believing in Belief .129Skepticism .130Gimme That Old-Time Religion .130Everybody Plays the Fool .131Politics Is Torture .131Prince Not Charming .131Doubting Fair Play .132Try, Try Again .132

Contents14 Science Rises from the Mud135Bringing Home the Bacon .136A Man with a Plan .136Idolizing Error .136Don’t Believe Everything You Read .137Science and Spirit .138It’s All in the Mind .138A Divided Mind .138A Passionate Affair .139Keeping Government in Mind .139A Whale of a World View .140Not in the Spirit .140Thinking Machines .141Weak Minds, Strong Ruler .141Gentlemen Don’t Fight .142Eye of Newton .143Formulas for Everything .143Shedding New Light on Color .14315 Men and Women of Substance145Being in the Know .146God and Nature Are Us .146Spinoza à la Mode .147Where There’s a Will, There’s a Way .147The Truth Will Set You Free .148A Man of Many Monads .148Many Views, One Picture .149What Happens to You Is Part of You .149The World Is a Math Problem .150A Man of Principles .150It’s Only Logical .151Taking a Chance on Substance .151Pushing the Limits .152The Matter with Cavendish .152It’s All Mental .152Knowledge in Conflict .153Imagining Philosophy .154xi

xiiThe Complete Idiot’s Guide to Philosophy, Second Edition16 Learning by Observing155The Sun Never Sets on British Empiricism .156Observant Brits .156A Locke on Understanding .156Your Mind Was a Blank .157Is Knowledge Accidental? .157Taking God Out of Government .158Divine Right Bites the Dust .158Back to Nature .159My Work, My Stuff .159Society’s Dotted Line .160A Better Idea .160If a Tree Falls in the Forest .161Soul Exceptions .161Hume-an Nature .162Blinded with Science .162Ideas Associated .162Hume’s Fork .163Inner Virtue .164Is, Isn’t, Ought .16417 Light on the Subject167French Lights .168Enlightened Luminaries .168A New Look at Laws .168Building from the Bottom Up .169Taking Power Apart .169The New God of Reason .169Keeping Freedom and Belief .170It’s Still Ticking! .170The Enlightenment Speaks Volumes .171A Feel for Philosophy .171Civilized People Are Apple Polishers .172Inventing Virtue and Vice .172Learning to Be Natural .17218 Wheeling and Idealing175Big Idealists .176Ideal-List .176A Falling Out over Unity .176