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Climate Change 2001Sri LankaMohan MunasingheB. PunyawardenaVice-Chair, WGIIIDepartment of AgricultureSudanNagmeldin ElhassanHigher Coucil for Environment & Natural ResourcesSwedenMarianne LillieskoldUlf MolauNils-Axel MornerMarkku RummukainenSwedish Environmental Protection AgencyUniversity of GothenburgPaleogeophysics & Geodynamics Stockholm UniversitySwedish Meterorological and Hydrological InstituteSwitzerlandChristof AppenzellerFortunat JoosHerbert LangJosé RomeroT. StockerFederal Office of Meteorology and Climatology (MetroSwiss)Vice-Chair, WGISwiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH)Office Federal de l’Environnement, des Forets et du PaysageUniversity of BernTanzaniaM.J. MwandosyaBuruhani S. NyenziCentre for Energy, Environment, Science, and TechnologyVice-Chair, WGIUnited KingdomNigel ArnellC. BakerTerry BarkerK. G. BeggS.A. Boehmer-ChristiansenRichard CourtneyK. DeyesThomas E. DowningCaroline FishChris FollandJonathan GregorySteve GregoryDavid GriggsJoanna HaighM. HarleySusan HaseldineJohn HoughtonMike HulmeMichael JeffersonCathy JohnsonSari KovatsDavid Mansell-MoullinAnil MarkandyaA. McCullochGordon McFadyenA.J. McMichaelAubrey MeyerJohn MitchellMartin Parry362Synthesis ReportIPCC Third Assessment ReportUniversity of SouthamptonNatural Environment Research CouncilUniversity of CambridgeUniversity of SurreyUniversity of HullThe LibertDepartment for Environment, Food and Rural AffairsEnvironmental Change InstituteUniversity of OxfordGlobal Atmosphere DivisionMet Office, Hadley CentreHadley Climate Research CentreForestry CommissionHead, WG-I TSUImperial CollegeEnglish NatureDepartment for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)Co-Chair, WG-IUniversity of East AngliaWorld Energy CouncilIPCC, Working Group ILondon School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineInternational Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA)University of BathICI Chemicals & Polymers LimitedGlobal Atmospheric Division Deparment of the Environment, Transport and the RegionsLondon School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineGlobal Commons InstituteHadley CenterJackson Environment Institute

Annex AAuthors and Expert ReviewersJ.M. PenmanS. RaperKeith ShineP. SingletonPeter SmithP. SmithsonPeter ThorneP. van der LindenDavid WarrilowPhilip L. WoodworthDepartment of the Environment, Transport and the RegionsUniversity of East AngliaDepartment of Meteorology, University of ReadingScottish Environment Protection AgencyIACR-RothamstedUniversity of SheffieldSchool of Environmental Sciences, University of East AngliaMet Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and ResearchDepartment of the Environment, Food and Rural AffairsBidston ObservatoryUnited StatesDilip AhujaDan AlbrittonJeffrey S. AmthorPeter BacklundLee BeckLeonard BernsteinDaniel BodanskyRick BradleyJames L. BuizerJohn ChristySusan ConardCurt CoveyBenjamin DeAngeloRobert DickinsonDavid DokkenRayola DougherWilliam EasterlingJerry ElwoodPaul R. EpsteinPaul D. FarrarHoward FeldmanJosh FosterLaurie GellerMichael GhilVivien GornitzKenneth GreenDavid HarrisonDavid D. HoughtonMalcolm HughesStanley JacobsHenry D. JacobyJudson JaffeSteven M. JaparRussell O. JonesSally KaneT. KarlCharles KellerHaroon KheshgiAnn KinzigMaureen T. KoetzRattan LalChris LandseaNeil LearyNational Institute of Advanced StudiesNOAA Aeronomy LaboratoryOak Ridge National LaboratoryOffice of Science and Technology Policy/Environment DivisionU.S. Environmental Protection AgencyIPIECAU.S. Department of StateUS Department of EnergyNational Oceanic & Amtospheric AdministrationUniversity of AlabamaOffice of Science and Technology Policy/Environment DivisionLawrence Livermore National LaboratoryU.S. Environmental Protection AgencyUniversity of ArizonaUniversity Corporation for Atmospheric ResearchAmerican Petroleum InstitutePennsylvania State UniversityDepartment of EnegryHarvard Medical SchoolNaval Oceanographic OfficeAmerican Petroleum InstituteNOAA Office of Global ProgramsNational Research CouncilUniversity of California, Los AngelesColumbia UniversityReason Public Policy InstituteNational Economic Research AssociatesUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonUniversity of ArizonaLamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia UniversityMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCouncil of Economic AdvisersFord Motor CompanyAmerican Petroleum InstituteNOAANOAA National Climatic Data CenterIGPP.SIO.UCSDExxon Research & Engineering CompanyArizona State UniversityNuclear Energy InstituteOhio State UniverstiyNOAA AOML/Hurricane Research DivisionHead, WGII TSU363

Climate Change 2001364Synthesis ReportSven B. LundstedtAnthony LupoMichael C. MacCrackenJames J. McCarthyGerald MeehlRobert MendelsohnPatrick MichaelsEvan MillsWilliam MoomawBerrien MooreJames MorisonJennifer Orme-ZavaletaCamille ParmesanJ.A. PatzJoyce PennerRoger A. PielkeMichael PratherLynn K. Price LawrenceV. RamaswamyRobert L. RandallRichard RichelsDavid RindCatriona RogersMatthias RuthJayant SathayeMichael SchlesingerStephen SchneiderMichael J. ScottRoger SedjoWalter ShortJoel B. SmithRobert N. StavinsRon StoufferT. TalleyKevin TrenberthEdward VineHenry WalkerRobert WatsonHoward WesokyJohn P. WeyantTom WilbanksThe Ohio State UniversityUniversity of Missouri - ColumbiaU.S. Global Change Research ProgramCo-Chair, WGIINCARYale UniversityUniversity of VirginiaLawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryThe Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts UniversityUniversity of New HampshireUniversity of WashingtonUSEP/NHEERL/WEDUniversity of TexasJohns Hopkins UniversityUniversity of MichiganColorado State UniversityUniversity of California IrvineBerkeley National LaboratoryNOAAThe RainForest ReGeneration InstituteElectric Power Research InstituteNational Aeronautics and Space AgencyU.S. Global Change Research ProgramUniversity of MarylandLawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryUniversity of Illinois-Urbana-ChampaignStanford UniversityBattelle Pacific Northwest Nat’l LaboratoryResources for the FutureNational Renewable Energy LaboratoryStratus Consulting Inc.John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard UniversityUS Dept of Commerce/NOAAOffice of Global Change, U.S. Department of StateNCARLawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryU.S. Environmental Protection AgencyChair, IPCCFederal Aviation AdministrationEnergy Modeling Forum, Stanford UniversityOak Ridge National LaboratoryVenezuelaArmando Ramirez RojasVice-Chair, WGIZimbabweChris MagadzaM.C. ZinyoweraUniversity of ZimbabweMSU Zimbabwe GvtIPCC Third Assessment Report

Annex BAnnex B. Glossary of TermsThis Glossary is based on the glossaries published in the IPCCThird Assessment Report (IPCC, 2001a,b,c); however, additionalwork has been undertaken on consistency and refinement ofsome of the terms. The terms that are independent entries inthis glossary are highlighted in italics.AcclimatizationThe physiological adaptation to climatic variations.Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ)The pilot phase for Joint Implementation, as defined in Article4.2(a) of the United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change, that allows for project activity amongdeveloped countries (and their companies) and betweendeveloped and developing countries (and their companies).AIJ is intended to allow Parties to the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change to gain experiencein jointly implemented project activities. There is no creditingfor AIJ activity during the pilot phase. A decision remains tobe taken on the future of AIJ projects and how they may relateto the Kyoto Mechanisms. As a simple form of tradable permits,AIJ and other market-based schemes represent importantpotential mechanisms for stimulating additional resource flowsfor the global environmental good. See also CleanDevelopment Mechanism and emissions trading.AdaptabilitySee Adaptive capacity.AdaptationAdjustment in natural or human systems to a new or changingenvironment. Adaptation to climate change refers toadjustment in natural or human systems in response to actualor expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderatesharm or exploits beneficial opportunities. Various types ofadaptation can be distinguished, including anticipatory andreactive adaptation, private and public adaptation, andautonomous and planned adaptation.Adaptation assessmentThe practice of identifying options to adapt to climate changeand evaluating them in terms of criteria such as availability,benefits, costs, effectiveness, efficiency, and feasibility.Adaptation benefitsThe avoided damage costs or the accrued benefits followingthe adoption and implementation of adaptation measures.Adaptation costsCosts of planning, preparing for, facilitating, and implementingadaptation measures, including transition costs.Glossary of TermsAdaptive capacityThe ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climatevariability and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to takeadvantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences.AdditionalityReduction in emissions by sources or enhancement of removalsby sinks that is additional to any that would occur in the absenceof a Joint Implementation or a Clean Development Mechanismproject activity as defined in the Kyoto Protocol Articles on JointImplementation and the Clean Development Mechanism. Thisdefinition may be further broadened to include financial,investment, and technology additionality. Under “financialadditionality,” the project activity funding shall be additionalto existing Global Environmental Facility, other financialcommitments of Parties included in Annex I, OfficialDevelopment Assistance, and other systems of cooperation.Under “investment additionality,” the value of the EmissionsReduction Unit/Certified Emission Reduction Unit shallsignificantly improve the financial and/or commercial viabilityof the project activity. Under “technology additionality,” thetechnology used for the project activity shall be the bestavailable for the circumstances of the host Party.Adjustment timeSee Lifetime; see also Response time.AerosolsA collection of airborne solid or liquid particles, with a typicalsize between 0.01 and 10 mm that reside in the atmospherefor at least several hours. Aerosols may be of either natural oranthropogenic origin. Aerosols may influence climate in twoways: directly through scattering and absorbing radiation, andindirectly through acting as condensation nuclei for cloudformation or modifying the optical properties and lifetime ofclouds. See indirect aerosol effect.AfforestationPlanting of new forests on lands that historically have notcontained forests. For a discussion of the term forest and relatedterms such as afforestation, reforestation, and deforestation,see the IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change,and Forestry (IPCC, 2000b).Aggregate impactsTotal impacts summed up across sectors and/or regions. Theaggregation of impacts requires knowledge of (or assumptionsabout) the relative importance of impacts in different sectors andregions. Measures of aggregate impacts include, for example, thetotal number of people affected, change in net primary productivity,number of systems undergoing change, or total economic costs.AlbedoThe fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface or object,often expressed as a percentage. Snow covered surfaces have365

Climate Change 2001a high albedo; the albedo of soils ranges from high to low;vegetation covered surfaces and oceans have a low albedo.The Earth’s albedo varies mainly through varying cloudiness,snow, ice, leaf area, and land cover changes.Algal bloomsA reproductive explosion of algae in a lake, river, or ocean.AlpineThe biogeographic zone made up of slopes above timberlineand characterized by the presence of rosette-formingherbaceous plants and low shrubby slow-growing woodyplants.Alternative development pathsRefer to a variety of possible scenarios for societal valuesand consumption and production patterns in all countries,including, but not limited to, a continuation of today’s trends.In this report, these paths do not include additional climateinitiatives which means that no scenarios are included thatexplicitly assume implementation of the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change or the emissiontargets of the Kyoto Protocol, but do include assumptions aboutother policies that influence greenhouse gas emissionsindirectly.Alternative energyEnergy derived from non-fossil-fuel sources.Ancillary benefitsThe ancillary, or side effects, of policies aimed exclusively atclimate change mitigation. Such policies have an impact notonly on greenhouse gas emissions, but also on resource useefficiency, like reduction in emissions of local and regionalair pollutants associated with fossil-fuel use, and on issuessuch as transportation, agriculture, land-use practices,employment, and fuel security. Sometimes these benefits arereferred to as “ancillary impacts” to reflect that in some casesthe benefits may be negative. From the perspective of policiesdirected at abating local air pollution, greenhouse gasmitigation may also be considered an ancillary benefit, butthese relationships are not considered in this assessment.Annex I countries/PartiesGroup of countries included in Annex I (as amended in 1998)to the United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange, including all the developed countries in theOrganisation for Economic Cooperation and Development,and economies in transition. By default, the other countriesare referred to as non-Annex I countries. Under Articles 4.2(a)and 4.2(b) of the Convention, Annex I countries committhemselves specifically to the aim of returning individually orjointly to their 1990 levels of greenhouse gas emissions bythe year 2000. See also Annex II, Annex B, and non-Annex Bcountries.366IPCC Third Assessment ReportSynthesis ReportAnnex II countriesGroup of countries included in Annex II to the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change, including alldeveloped countries in the Organisation for EconomicCooperation and Development. Under Article 4.2(g) of theConvention, these countries are expected to provide financialresources to assist developing countries to comply with theirobligations, such as preparing national reports. Annex IIcountries are also expected to promote the transfer ofenvironmentally sound technologies to developing countries.See also Annex I, Annex B, non-Annex I, and non-Annex Bcountries/Parties.Annex B countries/PartiesGroup of countries included in Annex B in the Kyoto Protocolthat have agreed to a target for their greenhouse gas emissions,including all the Annex I countries (as amended in 1998) butTurkey and Belarus. See also Annex II, non-Annex I, and nonAnnex B countries/Parties.AnthropogenicResulting from or produced by human beings.Anthropogenic emissionsEmissions of greenhouse gases, greenhouse gas precursors,and aerosols associated with human activities. These includeburning of fossil fuels for energy, deforestation, and land-usechanges that result in net increase in emissions.AquacultureBreeding and rearing fish, shellfish, etc., or growing plantsfor food in special ponds.AquiferA stratum of permeable rock that bears water. An unconfinedaquifer is recharged directly by local rainfall, rivers, and lakes,and the rate of recharge will be influenced by the permeabilityof the overlying rocks and soils. A confined aquifer ischaracterized by an overlying bed that is impermeable andthe local rainfall does not influence the aquifer.Arid regionsEcosystems with less than 250 mm precipitation per year.Assigned amounts (AAs)Under the Kyoto Protocol, the total amount of greenhousegas emissions that each Annex B country has agreed that itsemissions will not exceed in the first commitment period (2008to 2012) is the assigned amount. This is calculated bymultiplying the country’s total greenhouse gas emissions in1990 by five (for the 5-year commitment period) and then bythe percentage it agreed to as listed in Annex B of the KyotoProtocol (e.g., 92% for the European Union, 93% for the USA).

Annex BAssigned amount unit (AAU)Equal to 1 tonne (metric ton) of CO2-equivalent emissionscalculated using the Global Warming Potential.AtmosphereThe gaseous envelop surrounding the Earth. The dry atmosphereconsists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume mixingratio) and oxygen (20.9% volume mixing ratio), together witha number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93% volume mixingratio), helium, and radiatively active greenhouse gases suchas carbon dioxide (0.035% volume mixing ratio) and ozone.In addition, the atmosphere contains water vapor, whoseamount is highly variable but typically 1% volume mixingratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds and aerosols.AttributionSee detection and attribution.BankingAccording to the Kyoto Protocol [Article 3(13)], Partiesincluded in Annex I to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change may save excess emissionsallowances or credits from the first commitment period foruse in subsequent commitment periods (post-2012).BarrierA barrier is any obstacle to reaching a potential that can beovercome by a policy, program, or measure.BaselineThe baseline (or reference) is any datum against which changeis measured. It might be a “current baseline,” in which case itrepresents observable, present-day conditions. It might alsobe a “future baseline,” which is a projected future set ofconditions excluding the driving factor of interest. Alternativeinterpretations of the reference conditions can give rise tomultiple baselines.BasinThe drainage area of a stream, river, or lake.BiodiversityThe numbers and relative abundances of different genes(genetic diversity), species, and ecosystems (communities) ina particular area.BiofuelA fuel produced from dry organic matter or combustible oilsproduced by plants. Examples of biofuel include alcohol (fromfermented sugar), black liquor from the paper manufacturingprocess, wood, and soybean oil.BiomassThe total mass of living organisms in a given area or volume;recently dead plant material is often included as dead biomass.Glossary of TermsBiomeA grouping of similar plant and animal communities into broadlandscape units that occur under similar environmentalconditions.Biosphere (terrestrial and marine)The part of the Earth system comprising all ecosystems andliving organisms in the atmosphere, on land (terrestrialbiosphere), or in the oceans (marine biosphere), includingderived dead organic matter such as litter, soil organic matter,and oceanic detritus.BiotaAll living organisms of an area; the flora and fauna consideredas a unit.Black carbonOperationally defined species based on

P. Heikinheimo Ministry of Environment Raino Heino Finnish Meteorological Institute Pekka E. Kauppi University of Helsinki R. Korhonen VTT Energy A. Lampinen University of Jyväskyla I. Savolainen VTT Energy France Olivier Boucher Universite de Lille I Marc Darras Gaz de France Jane Ellis OECD Jean-Charles Hourcade CIRED/CNRS