Transcription
FAO Diversification booklet 7Make moneyb y growingmushrooms
Diversification booklet number 7Make moneyb y growingmushroomsElaine Marshall and N. G. (Tan) NairRural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries DivisionFood and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsRome 2009
The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s)and do not necessarily reflect the views of theFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.The designations employed and the presentation of material inthis information product do not imply the expression of any opinionwhatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development statusof any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerningthe delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specificcompanies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these havebeen patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed orrecommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature thatare not mentioned.All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material inthis information product for educational or other non-commercialpurposes are authorized without any prior written permission fromthe copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged.Reproduction of material in this information product for resale orother commercial purposes is prohibited without written permissionof the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should beaddressed to: Chief Electronic Publishing Policy and Support BranchCommunication Division FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153Rome, Italy or by e-mail to: copyright@fao.org FAO 2009
IntroductionContribution to livelihoodsPurpose of bookletMushrooms and sustainable livelihoodsNutritional valueMedicinal valueIncome benefitsLivelihood opportunitiesEssentials of mushroom cultivationLife cycle of a mushroomGrowing systemsKey steps in mushroom productionScale of productionSpecies selectionKey species and their cultivation methodsAssets required for mushroom cultivationNatural assetsSocial assetsHuman assetsPhysical assetsFinancial Table of contentsPrefaceAcknowledgements
Strategies for successful and sustainable mushroom trade 31Marketing channelsMarketing strategiesProcessingOrganizationAccessing market informationEducation, business skills and a willingness to take risksDiversification optionsSustainable mushroom trade3131333434343636Support services to help promote mushroomsas a source of livelihood39Public policyTechnical support and training in cultivation and processingBusiness and entrepreneurial skillsMarket informationFinancial servicesOrganizational optionsRole of advisorOpportunities and 344Selected further readingSources of further information and support4751Table of contents
PrefaceMake money by growing mushroomsThe purpose of the FAO Diversification booklets is to raise awareness andprovide decision support information about opportunities at farm and localcommunity level to increase the incomes of small-scale farmers.Each booklet focuses on a farm or non-farm enterprise that can beintegrated into small farms to increase incomes and enhance livelihoods. Theenterprises profiled in the FAO Diversification booklets selected are suitablefor smallholder farmers in terms of resource requirements, additional costs,exposure to risk and complexity. The products or services generated by theenterprises are suitable for meeting demand on a growing, or already strong,local market and are not dependent on an export market.The main target audience for these booklets are people and organizationsthat provide advisory, business and technical support services to resourcepoor small-scale farmers and local communities in low- and middle-incomecountries. It is hoped that enough information is given to help these supportservice providers to consider new income-generating opportunities and howthese might enable small-scale farmers to take action. What are the potentialbenefits? What are farmer requirements and constraints? What are critical‘success factors’?The FAO Diversification booklets are also targeted to policy-makers andprogramme managers in government and non-governmental organizations.What actions might policy-makers take to create enabling environments forsmall-scale farmers to diversify into new income-generating activities?The FAO Diversification booklets are not intended to be technical ‘howto do it’ guidelines. Readers will need to seek more information or technicalsupport, so as to provide farmer advisory and support activities relating tothe introduction of new income-generating activities. To assist in this respect,v
each booklet identifies additional sources of information, technical support andwebsite addresses.A CD has been prepared with a full series of FAO Diversification bookletsand relevant FAO technical guides, together with complementary guideson market research, financing, business planning, etc. Copies of the CD areavailable on request from FAO. FAO Diversification booklets can also bedownloaded from the FAO Internet site.If you find this booklet of value, we would like to hear from you. Tellyour colleagues and friends about it. FAO would welcome suggestions aboutpossible changes for enhancing our next edition or regarding relevant topicsfor other booklets. By sharing your views and ideas with us we can providebetter services to you.vi
Gratitude is owed to Divine N. Njie, Agro-industries Officer and AlexandraRöttger, Agribusiness Economist, Rural Infrastructure and Agro-industriesDivision (AGS), FAO, for providing input, reviews and support to the variousdrafts of this booklet. Thanks are also owed to Siobhan Kelly, Agribusinessand Enterprise Development Officer (AGS), FAO, for carefully reviewing thefinal draft version of this booklet.Acknowledgements for the seriesGratitude is owed to Doyle Baker, Chief, Rural Infrastructure and AgroIndustries Division (AGS), FAO, for his vision, encouragement and constantsupport in the development of the FAO Diversification booklet series. Thanksare also due to Josef Kienzle, Agro-Industries Officer, AGS, FAO, for hispatience, commitment, and contributions to the production and post-productionof the series. Clare Bishop-Sambrook, principal editor of the series, providedtechnical support and guidance, both during the development and finalizationof the booklets. Martin Hilmi provided both technical and editorial inputs andmanaged the post-production phase of the series. Fabio Ricci undertook thedesign and layout of the booklets and desktop publishing.viiMake money by growing mushroomsAcknowledgements
Introductionand temperate zones, including theCommon mushroom (Agaricus),Shiitake(Lentinus),Oyster(Pleurotus), Straw (Volvariella),Lion’s Head or Pom Pom (Hericium),Ear(Auricularis),Ganoderma(Reishi), Maitake (Grifola frondosa),Winter (Flammulina), White jelly(Tremella), Nameko (Pholiota),and Shaggy Mane mushrooms(Coprinus). Commercial marketsare dominated by Agaricus bisporus,Lentinula edodes and Pleurotus spp,which represent three quarters ofmushrooms cultivated globally.Make money by growing mushroomsThere are hundreds of identifiedspecies of fungi which, since timeimmemorial, have made a significantglobal contribution to human foodand medicine. Some estimate that thetotal number of useful fungi – definedas having edible and medicinal value– are over 2 300 species. Althoughthis contribution has historicallybeen made through the collection ofwild edible fungi, there is a growinginterest in cultivation to supplement,or replace, wild harvest. This is aresult of the increased recognitionof the nutritional value of manyspecies, coupled with the realizationof the income generating potentialof fungi through trade. In addition,where knowledge about wild fungiis not passed on within families orthroughout communities, peoplehave become more reluctant towild harvest and prefer to cultivatemushrooms instead.Cultivated mushrooms havenow become popular all over theworld. There are over 200 genera ofmacrofungi which contain speciesof use to people. Twelve species arecommonly grown for food and/ormedicinal purposes, across tropicalContribution to livelihoodsMushroom cultivation can helpreduce vulnerability to poverty andstrengthens livelihoods throughthe generation of a fast yieldingand nutritious source of food anda reliable source of income. Sinceit does not require access to land,mushroom cultivation is a viableand attractive activity for both ruralfarmers and peri-urban dwellers.Small-scale growing does not includeany significant capital investment:mushroom substrate can be preparedfrom any clean agricultural waste1
material, and mushrooms can beproduced in temporary clean shelters.They can be cultivated on a part-timebasis, and require little maintenance.Indirectly, mushroom cultivationalso provides opportunities forimproving the sustainability ofsmall farming systems through therecycling of organic matter, whichcan be used as a growing substrate,and then returned to the land asfertilizer.Through the provision of incomeand improved nutrition, successfulcultivation and trade in mushroomscan strengthen livelihood assets,which can not only reducevulnerability to shocks, but enhancean individual’s and a community’scapacity to act upon other economicopportunities.Purpose of bookletThis booklet highlights the manyopportunities to, and benefits of,2increasing food and income securitythrough incorporating mushroominto livelihoods strategies. Casestudies of successful outcomesfrom growing mushrooms as alivelihood demonstrate the benefitsarising from mushroom productionin terms of income, food securityand consumption of healthy food.Sources of additional informationand technical support for any followup are identified at the end of thebooklet.The booklet recognises thevaluable contribution that wild ediblefungi make to the livelihoods of ruralpeople in both tropical and temperatezones. However, this booklet does notfocus on wild harvest production, butit does recognize that the subsequentprocessing, packaging and marketingof mushrooms is similar for bothcultivated and wild harvest types.
Mushroomsand sustainable livelihoodsfood in their own right: they areoften considered to provide a fairsubstitute for meat, with at leasta comparable nutritional value tomany vegetables. The consumptionof mushrooms can make a valuableaddition to the often unbalanced dietsof people in developing countries.Fresh mushrooms have a high watercontent, around 90 percent, so dryingthem is an effective way to bothprolonge their shelf-life and preservetheir flavour and nutrients.Nutritional valueMushrooms both add flavour tobland staple foods and are a valuableMake money by growing mushroomsMushroom cultivation can directlyimprovelivelihoodsthrougheconomic, nutritional and medicinalcontributions. However, it is essentialto note that some mushrooms arepoisonous and may even be lethal,thus the need for extra caution inidentifying those species that can beconsumed as food.FIGURE 1 A comparison of the nutritional index (essential amino acids,vitamins and minerals) of different foods compared to mushroomsA comparison of the nutritional index of different foods compared to mushroomsNutritional index60504030Mushrooms: between 6 and 3120geumbersMaizeTurniPo hacnineaSpybrkefBePoSohicken0CType of food10Source: FAO. 2004. Wild edible fungi, a global overview of their use and importance to people,by E. Boa, Non-Wood Forest Products, No.17, Rome.3
Mushrooms are a good source ofvitamin B, C and D, including niacin,riboflavin, thiamine, and folate,and various minerals includingpotassium, phosphorus, calcium,magnesium, iron and copper. Theyprovide carbohydrates, but are low infat and fibre, and contain no starch.Furthermore, edible mushrooms arean excellent source of high qualityprotein (reportedly between 19percent and 35 percent), and whitebutton mushrooms contain moreprotein than kidney beans. In additionto all the essential amino acids, somemushrooms have medicinal benefitsof certain polysaccharides, which areknown to boost the immune system.Medicinal valueRecently, there has been a spectaculargrowth in, and commercial activityassociated with, dietary supplements,functional foods and other productsthat are ‘more than just food’.Medicinal fungi have routinely beenused in traditional Chinese medicine.Today, an estimated six percent ofedible mushrooms are known tohave medicinal properties and canbe found in health tonics, tinctures,teas, soups and herbal formulas.Lentinula edodes (shiitake) andVolvariella volvacea (Chinese orstraw mushroom) are edible fungiwith medicinal properties widelydiffused and cultivated.FIGURE 2 Production of bioactive compounds from mushrooms(Photo by N. G. Nair)4
CASE STUDY 1effects. Mushrooms represent a vastsource of yet undiscovered potentpharmaceutical products and theirbiochemistry would merit furtherinvestigation.Income benefitsMushroom cultivation activities canplay an important role in supportingthe local economy by contributing tosubsistence food security, nutrition,and medicine; generating additionalemployment and income throughlocal, regional and national trade; andoffering opportunities for processingenterprises (such as pickling anddrying) (see Case Study 1).Make money by growing mushroomsThe medicinal properties ofmushrooms depend on severalbioactive compounds and theirbioactivitydependsonhowmushrooms are prepared and eaten.Shiitake are said to have antitumour and antiviral properties andremove serum cholesterol from theblood stream. Other species, suchas Pleurotus (oyster), Auricularia(mu-er), Flammulina (enokitake),Termella (yin-er) and Grifola(maitake), all have varying degreesof immune system boosting, lipidlowering, anti-tumour, microbialand viral properties, blood pressureregulating, and other therapeuticA community mushrooming business in TanzaniaIn many parts of Africa, edible fungi are an important food source, but in the Hai district ofNortheastern Tanzania, many community members traditionally perceived mushrooms to bepoisonous. Until a few years ago, oyster mushrooms were considered to be an expensiveluxury food for urban consumers and not of interest to resource poor households. Despitethese initial challenges, a project initiated in May 2005, led by the Horticultural ResearchInstitute Tengeru and supported by FARM-Africa’s Maendeleo Agricultural Technology Fund,has resulted in almost 300 Hai farmers adopting oyster mushroom production in their homes.The Kilimanjaro highlands were once a thriving banana and coffee growing region, butwith falling world market prices for coffee and unreliable rain in the lowlands, farmers havestruggled to earn an income and produce enough food. Households have become poorerand malnutrition amongst children has increased. However, Hai farmers became graduallyconvinced of the value of cultivating and consuming oyster mushrooms after attending trainingand a series of cooking demonstrations held by Horti-Tengeru during 2005. The productioncycle takes about 6 to 12 weeks, and the crop can be cultivated year-round.The benefits of growing and selling mushrooms have enabled farmers to buy livestock (chickensand goats), pay school fees and household goods, and a number of farmers have investedin expanding their mushroom production. The benefits to the household have also includedimproved nutrition. (Consumption of animal protein is low in most households, even thosewith livestock.) Oyster mushrooms are rich in protein and provide an affordable alternative.A number of households have now adopted a recommended preparation of mushroom stew,which is eaten with rice or a stiff porridge.5
CASE STUDY 1A community mushrooming business in Tanzania(continued)Mushroom growing involves all members of the community. Younger group members helpthe older people by preparing the substrates (chopping and pasteurisation) and mixing thespawn collectively. Individuals are then given the spawned bags to take home. Farmer groupsalso share use of equipment, such as pasteurisation drums, drying trays or solar driers.Poverty amongst some group members is also still a constraint as many lack space forthe mushroom growing structures. However, farmers are encouraged to rent rooms and arevolving fund has been set up to allow them to buy their planting material. The majority paidback at least half the loan within the first production cycle.By mid 2006, one year after the introduction of the crop, growers were selling their mushroomsto local informal markets and also to hotels and supermarkets in Arusha and Moshi, includinga major supermarket.Demand for oyster mushrooms in Hai and neighbouring districts currently exceeds supply,indicating potential for further growth. To maintain demand, mushroom quality, good packagingand consistent production will have to be sustained. Farmer groups have demonstrated theirinnovativeness in finding a variety of ways to improve their products. One group, for example,has discovered a method for processing quality dry mushroom without using a solar drier,while an individual farmer processes his mushrooms by pickling.Farmers are now training others in mushroom production. Recipes including mushroomstew, soup and samosas have been devised and are prepared during field days, and thetechnologies for processing the mushrooms for sale are also demonstrated. The Hai districtcouncil provides support by funding transport for extension staff to disseminate the mushroomtechnologies to farmers not yet involved in the project. For established farmers the next stepis to produce mushrooms on a larger scale and market collectively. With support from HortiTengeru, the farmers groups are gradually being transformed into business units through theformation and registration of mushroom savings and credit societies, which will be responsiblefor the effective marketing of mushroom products for the benefit of members.Source: New Agriculturalist. 2007. A mushroom business in uson2.php)Income from mushrooms can supplement cash flow, providing either: a safety net during critical times, preventing people falling into greaterpoverty; a gap-filling activity which can help spread income and generally makepoverty more bearable through improved nutrition and higher income; or a stepping stone activity to help make people less poor, or evenpermanently lift them out of poverty.6
CASE STUDY 2as filling substrates in containersand harvesting, are ideally suitedfor women’s participation. Severalprogrammes have enhanced women’sempowerement through mushroomproduction by giving them theopportunity to gain farming skills,financial independence and selfrespect.Make money by growing mushroomsLivelihood opportunitiesTrade in cultivated mushroomscan provide a readily available andimportant source of cash income - formen and women and the old, infirmand disabled alike (see Case Study 2).The role played by women inrural mushroom production can bevery significant. Certain parts of themushroom cultivation process, suchOpportunities for the disabledOne of the best examples of opportunities in mushroom growing for the disabled canbe seen in the recent pioneering programme undertaken by the FAO Regional Officefor Asia and the Pacific in the poor Northeastern part of Thailand. The main aim of theproject was to enhance opportunities for rural people with disabilities to become selfreliant and to show their capabilities, allowing them to re-integrate their community andbe active members of society.Several positive outcomes were achieved through training people with disabilities: People with disabilities can do almost everythingthat is required for establishing a successfulmushroom growing enterprise. The trainees gained self-satisfaction and self-esteem,and several became physically stronger. Trainees with mental disabilities demonstratedgood skills in basic bookkeeping and developingmarketing strategies. Many trainees became trainers. Trainees taught mushroom growing techniquesto their family members who support them andhave found mushroom growing to be an importantsource of household income.Source: New Agriculturalist. 2007. A mushroom business in uson2.php)7
Essentials ofmushroom cultivationLife cycle of a mushroomThe key life cycle stages for fungi(see Figure 3) are as follows:Vegetative growth of themycelium in the substrateAs spores, released from the gills,germinate and develop they formhyphae, which are the main modeof vegetative growth in fungi.Collectively, these are referred to asmycelium, and these feed, grow andultimately produce mushrooms (inmost species). Mycelium appearsas microscopic threads similarin appearance to the mould thatsometimes grows on bread.Reproductive growthwhen the fruit bodies are formedThe appearance of fruiting bodies ormushroom varies according to thespecies, but all have a vertical stalk(stipe) and a head (pileus or cap).Make money by growing mushroomsFungi come in many shapes, sizesand colours. Macrofungi is a generalcategory used for species that have avisible structure that produces spores,which are generically referred to asfruiting bodies. Unlike the leavesof green plants, which containchlorophyll to absorb light energyfor photosynthesis (the process bywhich plants convert carbon dioxideand water into organic chemicals),mushrooms rely on other plantmaterial (the substrate) for their food.Production of sporesby the mushroom fruit bodiesThe underside of the cap has gillsor pores from which mushroomspores are produced. The mushroomproduces several million spores inits life, and this life cycle is repeatedeach time the spores germinate toform the mycelium.Growing systemsCultivated mushrooms are ediblefungi that grow on decaying organicmatter. Mushrooms obtain theirnutrients in three basic ways:1 Saprobic, growing on deadorganic matter. Saprobic ediblefungi can be wild harvested,but are most widely valued asa source of food and medicinein their cultivated forms. Theyneed a constant supply of9
FIGURE 3 Life cycle of a mushroom4Hyphae connect with a tree root to form arelationship that benefits both partners, the fungusand tree. The fungus provides phosphorus, mineralsand water, the tree provides carbohydrates for thefungus’ growth and in some cases reproduce.1FRUITBODYSpores are carried away from theunderside of the fruitbody by thewind. If they land in a favourablesite, they germinate to producean underground branched webcalled a mycelium.3YOUNG FRUITBODYEmerges above ground.If conditions remainhumid and the fruitbodiesavoid insect attack, theygrow to full size within afortnight.2SPORESIn the right conditions, asexual process occurs,fruiting structures areproduced, then fruitbodiesdevelop.MYCELIATwo mycelia of opposite mating types fuse.Source: Adapted from geocities.com by Fabio Ricci.suitable organic matter to sustainproduction and, in the wild,this can be a limiting factor inproduction.2 Symbiotic, growing inassociation with other organisms.10The majority of wild ediblefungi species (e.g. chanterelles- Cantharellus and Amanitaspecies) are symbiotic andcommonly form mycorrhizaswith trees, where the fungushelps the tree gather water
3 Pathogenic or parasitic, plantpathogenic fungi cause diseasesof plants and a small number ofthese microfungi are eaten in theform of infected host material.CASE STUDY 3Essentially, mushroom species can becultivated in two ways:Composted substrates: wheat and ricestraw, corn cobs, hay, water hyacinth,composted manure, and various otheragricultural by-products includingcoffee husks and banana leaves (seeCase Study 3);Woody substrates: logs or sawdust.Generally, each mushroom speciesprefers a particular growing medium,although some species can grow on awide range of materials (see Box 1).This booklet focuses on cultivatingUtilising water hyacinth as mushroom substratein MalawiWater hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) is a waterweed present in many of the rivers of Malawi.It causes serious problems, such as reduced water quality and fish populations, blockedirrigation and drainage systems, hinders river navigation, and promotes the growth of vectorsof insect-borne diseases and bilharzias. However, it is high in nitrogen.Several groups of rural women are using water hyacinth as the substrate for growing oystermushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju). They do not require much land and use simple growingmethods. There is an abundant supply of the substrate because the weed regeneratesrapidly. Since most of the materials needed for mushroom growing are obtained locally thecultivation process is economically viable.There are plans to grow other types of mushrooms such as Ganoderma lucidum and Agaricusbisporus. Since the domestic production of mushrooms in Malawi (6.5 metric tonnes/year)is significantly lower than that of the annual demand (80 metric tonnes/year), the future formushroom cultivation for trade, as a livelihood activity, looks promising.OXFAM, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Ministry of Commerceand Industry funded ‘The Enterprise Development and Training Agency’ in Malawi, whichprovide training to farmers on mushroom growing as an alternative livelihood strategy.Source: Mkoka, C. 2003. Malawi turns world’s worst waterweed into a lucrative ce/2003/09/article03.shtml)11Make money by growing mushroomsfrom a wider catchment anddelivers nutrients from the soilthat the tree cannot access andthe tree provides the funguswith essential carbohydrates.(Detailed and globallycomprehensive recommendationson the sustainable collection andmanagement of wild fungi areprovided in FAO, 2004.)
saprobic species. Some mushrooms- matsutakes and chanterelles - canalso be cultivated by inoculationof tree roots with species that formmycorrhizae that then infect the roots,as with truffles; however this is notcovered by this booklet (see Hall etal, 1998).BOX 1 Key mushroom species and their corresponding cultivation mediumGrowing MediumMushroom SpeciesRice strawStraw (Volvariella), Oyster (Pleurotus),Common (Agaricus)Wheat strawOyster (Pleurotus), Common (Agaricus),Straw (Volvariella), Roundhead (Stropharia)Coffee pulpOyster (Pleurotus), Shiitake (Lentinus)SawdustShiitake (Lentinus), Oyster (Pleurotus), Lion’s Heador Pom Pom (Hericium), Ear (Auricularis),Ganoderma (Reishi), Maitake (Grifola frondosa),Winter (Flammulina)Sawdust-strawOyster (Pleurotus), Roundhead (Stropharia)Cotton waste from textile industryOyster (Pleurotus), Straw (Volvariella)Cotton seed hullsOyster (Pleurotus), Shiitake (Lentinus)LogsNameko (Pholiota), Shiitake (Lentinus),White jelly (Tremella)Sawdust-rice branNameko (Pholiota), Ear (Auricularis), Shaggy Mane(Coprinus), Winter (Flammulina), Shiitake (Lentinus)CorncobsOyster (Pleurotus), Lion’s Heador Pom Pom (Hericium), Shiitake (Lentinus)PaperOyster (Pleurotus), Roundhead (Stropharia)Horse manure (fresh or composted)Common (Agaricus)Molasses waste from sugar industryOyster (Pleurotus)Water hyacinth/Water lilyOyster (Pleurotus), Straw (Volvariella)Oil palm wasteStraw (Volvariella)Bean strawOyster (Pleurotus)Cotton strawOyster (Pleurotus)Cocoa shell wasteOyster (Pleurotus)CoirOyster (Pleurotus)Banana leavesStraw (Volvariella)Distillers grain wasteLion’s Head or Pom Pom (Hericium)Source: Beetz, A. & Kustudia, M. 2004. Mushroom cultivation and marketing. Horticulture ProductionGuide. ATTRA Publication IP 087.12
1identifying and cleaning a dedicatedroom or building in whichtemperature, moisture and sanitaryconditions can be controlled to growmushrooms in;2choosing a growing medium andstoring the raw ingredients in a cleanplace under cover and protectedfrom rain;3pasteurising or sterilizing themedium and bags in which, or tableson which, mushrooms will be grown(to exclude other fungi that wouldcompete for the same space - oncethe selected fungi has colonizedthe substrate it can fight off thecompetition);4seeding the beds with spawn (sporesfrom mature mushrooms grown onsterile media);5maintaining optimal temperature,moisture, hygiene and otherconditions for mycelium growthand fruiting, which is the mostchallenging step; adding water tothe substrate to raise the moisturecontent since it helps ensure efficientsterilization;6harvesting and eating, or ng the facility and beginningagain.Spawn and inoculationMushroom spawn is purchasedfrom specialist mushroom spawnproducers, and there are severaltypes or strains of spawn for eachtype of mushroom. It is not generallyadvisable for mushroom growers tomake their own spawn because of thecare needed to maintain the qualityof spawn in the production process.13Make money by growing mushroomsKey steps inmushroom productionThe basic concept in cultivationis to start with some mushroomspores, which grow into myceliumand expand into a mass sufficientin volume and stored up energyto support the final phase of themushroom reproductive cycle, whichis the formation of fruiting bodies ormushrooms.The key generic steps inmushroom production – a cycle thattakes between one to three monthsfrom start to finish depending onspecies – are:
FIGURE 4 Incubation of mushroom spawn under hygienic conditions(Photo by N. G. Nair)FIGURE 5 Bag system for Agaricus bisporus(Photo by N. G. Nair)14
FIGURE 6 Tray system for Agaricusbisporus (Photo by N. G. Nair)pasteurised substrate under hygienicconditions, in an enclosed space, andmixed thoroughly to ensure that themushroom mycelium grows evenlythroughout the substrate.Farmers with limited resourcescan overcome the need to purchasespawn each time a new crop is putdown by removing a portion
technical support and guidance, both during the development and finalization of the booklets. Martin Hilmi provided both technical and editorial inputs and managed the post-production phase of the series. Fabio Ricci undertook the design and layout
