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About the authorsAuthorDescriptionContact detailsChristine AhlersA poultry veterinarian with1. FAO Regional Office for Asia andexperience in both commercial andthe Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road,family poultry, working for the FoodBangkok 10200, Thailandand Agriculture Organization of2. Soomskamp 12, 27324the United Nations in its RegionalEystrup, GermanyOffice for Asia and the PacificEmail: c-ahlers@gmx.deRobyn AldersA village poultry specialist with the 1. KYEEMA Foundation, GPO BoxInternational Rural Poultry Centre3023, Brisbane, Queensland 4001,of the KYEEMA Foundation and theAustralia.Cummings School of Veterinary2. International Program, DEPH,Medicine, Tufts University, USACummings School of VeterinaryMedicine, Tufts University, 200Westboro Road, North GraftonMA 01536, USAEmail: robyn.alders@gmail.comBrigitte BagnolSocial anthropologist with theUniversity of the Witwatersrand,Johannesburg, South Africa andthe International Rural PoultryCentre of the KYEEMA FoundationPostnet suite 118 Private Box X1,Melrose Arch, 2076 Johannesburg,South AfricaEmail: bagnolbrigitte@gmail.comAna Bela Cambaza A veterinarian working for theNational Veterinary ServicesDirectorate who has been involvedwith the control of Newcastledisease in village chickenssince 2004.CP 1406, Maputo, MozambiqueMohamed HarunVeterinary physiologist specialisingin the biology of incubation andtemperature regulation in neonatesof avian speciesVeterinary Faculty, University ofEduardo Mondlane, PO Box 257,Maputo, MozambiqueAnimal production specialist with18 years’ experience in livestockproduction including poultry.He has been actively involvedin control of Newcastle diseasein village chickens using athermotolerant I-2 ND vaccinesince 2003.Department of Animal Health andLivestock Development, PO Box2096, Lilongwe, MalawiRichardMgomezuluHalifa Msami8Email: controlodn@yahoo.com.brEmail: kabil.harun@tvcabo.co.mzEmail: richardag mgomezulu@yahoo.co.ukPrincipal veterinary research officer, Central Veterinary Laboratory, POTanzania national coordinator forBox 9254, Dar Es Salaam, TanzaniaNewcastle disease control; poultryEmail: hmmsami@gmail.compathologist with several yearsexperience working on villagechicken developmentImproving village chicken production: a manual for field workers and trainers

AuthorDescriptionContact detailsBob PymA poultry geneticist by trainingwith interest and involvementin small-scale family poultryproduction in the developingcountries of South-East Asia andSouthern AfricaSchool of Veterinary Science,University of Queensland, St Lucia,Queensland 4072, AustraliaA community development andextension specialist who has alsohelped design training materialsand programs for the controlof Newcastle disease in villagechickensSchool of Natural and Rural SystemsManagement,University of Queensland,St Lucia Campus, Queensland 4072,AustraliaA poultry specialist with manyyears’ experience of small-scalechicken development in rural andperi-urban areasPO Box 171, Ifafa Beach 4185,KwaZulu-Natal, South AfricaA veterinary pathologist withseveral years’ experience in controlof Newcastle disease in villagepoultry using thermotolerant I-2Newcastle disease vaccineKYEEMA Foundation, GPO Box3023, Brisbane, Queensland 4001,AustraliaPeter WegenerEd WethliMary YoungAbout the authorsEmail: r.pym@uq.edu.auEmail: p.wegener@uq.edu.auEmail: edwethli@absamail.co.zaEmail: mary p young@yahoo.com9

AcknowledgmentsSincere thanks to go to the many farmers, extension workers, livestockspecialists and veterinarians who have contributed valuable informationand provided feedback on the contents of this manual.We acknowledge the support of the Australian Agency for InternationalDevelopment through the Southern Africa Newcastle Disease ControlProject (SANDCP) and the Australian Centre for International AgriculturalResearch in the preparation of this manual. Dr Ed Wethli was working asan International Fund for Agricultural Development consultant at the timehis contribution was made. SANDCP was implemented by GRM InternationalPty Ltd in collaboration with the International Rural Poultry Centre of theKYEEMA Foundation.Special thanks go to Mr Razac Chame for his patience and artistic excellencein providing all of the illustrations for this manual.10Improving village chicken production: a manual for field workers and trainers

AbbreviationsACIARAustralian Centre for International Agricultural ResearchAIDSacquired immune deficiency syndromeCRDchronic respiratory disease Cdegrees CelsiusFAOFood and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsFGDfocus group discussionggramsHIVhuman immunodeficiency virusHPAIhighly pathogenic avian influenzaIBinfectious bronchitisIBDinfectious bursal disease, also known as Gumboro diseasekgkilogramLlitremmetrem2square metremLmillilitreNDNewcastle diseaseNGOnon-government organisationPRAparticipatory rural appraisalOIEWorld Organisation for Animal Health (OrganisationInternationale des Epizooties)PPEpersonal protective equipmentSFRBscavenging feed resource base11

GlossaryAntibodyA protein produced by specialised B cells after stimulationby an antigen. Antibodies bind with antigens on foreignorganisms to help inactivate them. Each antibody can bindto only one specific antigen.BiosecurityAny practice or system that prevents the spread ofinfectious agents from infected to susceptible animals,or prevents the introduction of infected animals intoa herd, region, or country in which the infectionhas not yet occurred. More specifically, biosecuritycombines ‘bioexclusion’, i.e. measures for preventing apathogen from being introduced into a herd/flock, and‘biocontainment’, stopping the spread of a pathogenamong animal groups within a farm or of being releasedfrom the farm.BroodyIf a hen ( female chicken) is broody, she is ready tolay eggs and sit on them.CloacaThe internal cavity into which the intestinal, urinary andgenital canals empty in birds. In females it also servesas the depository for sperm. The cloaca has an opening(vent) for expelling its contents from the body.CockerelA young male chicken.DroppingsThe excrement (i.e. manure) produced by animalsand birds.EmbryoAn animal that is developing, either in its mother’s wombor in an egg, or a plant that is developing in a seed.EndemicAn endemic disease or condition is one that is regularlyfound and very common among a particular group or ina particular area.FomitesInanimate objects such as boots, clothing, equipment,instruments, vaccination needles, vehicles, crates orpackaging that can transmit an infectious agent to anew host mechanically. Fomites become contaminatedbut not infected.ForageFood grown for livestock consumption.GleaningsCereal remnants in the field after harvesting.GenotypeThe particular type and arrangement of genes in anorganism.I-2 vaccineThermotolerant, live, avirulent Newcastle disease vaccine.12Improving village chicken production: a manual for field workers and trainers

LipidA substance such as a fat, oil or wax that dissolvesin alcohol but not in water and is an important part ofliving cells.MechanicaltransmissionThe transfer of an infection from one animal to a new hostwhere the transmitter is not infected, in that tissues arenot invaded and the agent does not multiply. Fomites areoften involved in mechanical transmission.MutationA sudden change from the parent type in one or moreheritable characteristics, caused by a change in a geneor a chromosome.OrganicOrganic produce, such as plants and animals grown forfood, is produce grown without the use of insecticidesand other synthetic chemicals.PathognomonicA pathognomonic sign is a specific sign whose presencemeans, beyond any doubt, that a particular disease ispresent.PulletA young, female domestic fowl, especially a chicken,from the time she begins to lay until first moult.RalesA clicking, rattling, or crackling noise heard during inhalation.ReassortmentThe fragmentation and reassembly of the genetic materialof two similar viruses that are infecting the same cell.RoosterAn adult male chicken.SnickA high-pitched sound associated with sneezing in poultry.ThermolabileA thermolabile agent loses activity (especially infectivity)at elevated temperatures.ThermotolerantA thermotolerant agent retains activity (especially infectivity)at elevated temperatures.TropismA preference for a particular location or direction. Thesite preferred by a virus (e.g. ND virus) for replicationwithin the body.VentThe external opening of the cloaca, through which eggsand droppings pass.VerticaltransmissionPassage of a disease-causing agent (a pathogen) verticallyfrom mother directly to her offspring during pregnancy orlactation. In the case of poultry, the transmission is fromthe hen to her chick via the egg.VirulenceRefers to the degree of pathogenicity of a microbeor, in other words, the relative ability of a microbeto cause disease.Glossary13

PART 1Village chickens and village chicken farmersThe improvement of village chicken production can have a profound effecton the wellbeing of rural families. The effective, low-cost interventionsdescribed in this manual can directly contribute to poverty alleviation,household food security, income generation, HIV/AIDS mitigation andwildlife conservation. Working with male and female farmers to improve theproduction of their village chickens also provides opportunities to enhancetheir understanding of nutrition, stock management, and the origins anddevelopment of diseases. Farmers’ knowledge of poultry and human nutrition can be increased inparallel. Since women are often the family members responsible for boththe care of poultry and the preparation of the family’s meals, this approachcan bring big benefits. Once the production of village chickens improves, farmers take a greaterinterest in managing their stocks of birds by monitoring the availability oflocal feed resources and assessing options for the off-take of birds by saleor other means. Ensuring that farmers understand disease processes is an essential stepas it is very difficult to improve biosecurity practices if they do not believethat diseases are caused by infectious agents.Before promoting improved management and disease control in an area orvillage, it is important to understand the existing environment in which villagechickens are produced. Part 1 of this manual therefore provides, in threechapters, background material on the role of village chickens and wherethey fit into the rural production system. It also describes how to involve thecommunity in any activities relating to village chicken production. It shouldbe read and understood before deciding on implementing any of theinterventions described in Parts 2 and 3.A number of terms that may be unfamiliar are defined in the glossary at thebeginning of the manual.15

1Introduction1.1Village chickens definedVillage chickens are the most common type of livestock in many rural areas.Even very poor households with few labour resources will normally keep somechickens. ‘Village’ chickens are also known as rural, indigenous, scavenging,traditional or family chickens, and have various names in local languages.There are several definitions of village, rural or family poultry. The maindifferences between them relate to the degree to which aspects of moreintensive and commercial chicken production systems are included. For thepurposes of this manual, family poultry is used as a more general categorythat also includes production systems more commonly found in urbanareas, where a family raises chickens in an enclosure with a greater levelof purchased inputs. The term village poultry, on the other hand, refers tothe extensive production systems most commonly found in rural areas, andusually involves indigenous chicken genotypes. The information provided inthis manual is directed toward improvements to village poultry systems andaims to maintain the basic advantages of this system, which are low inputsand, consequently, low risk. Although the emphasis is on village chickens,many of the recommendations in this manual can be applied to other poultryspecies, such as ducks, turkeys and guinea fowl.Village poultry: comprise local genetic stock (sometimes, but rarely, interbredwith improved stock) are raised extensively in relatively small numbers (between1–50 at any time, although more commonly 5–15 birds) are not usually confined and obtain most of their diet fromscavenging for food and water around the home (includinghousehold wastes) and village require minimal investment in inputs, with most if not all of theinputs generated around the home engage labour inputs that are not salaried but are drawn fromthe family, with women and children commonly most responsiblefor their care production is geared essentially toward home consumptionand savings (a living bank) for small expenses such as schoolfees and medicines.Animal protein consumed in rural areas frequently comes from village chickenmeat and eggs. Chickens can also be sold or bartered to meet family needs16Part 1 Village chickens and village chicken farmers

such as medicines, clothes and school fees. In this way, they act as a readysource of cash for emergencies and small purchases. Village chickensprovide manure and play a role in pest control. They are also important forspecial festivals or to meet social obligations, and they are essential for manytraditional ceremonies and methods of treating illnesses. They are generallyowned and managed by women and children, and are often an essential partof households headed by women.Chicken meat and eggsChicken meat and eggs provide a readily available, high-qualitysource of proteins, vitamins and micronutrients. Eggs are anexcellent source of iron, zinc and vitamin A, all of which are essentialto health, growth and wellbeing. Chickens and eggs contribute to anutritious, balanced diet, which is especially important for children,nursing mothers and people who are ill.Village chickens play a very important role in poor rural communities in thatthey can convert feed available around a house or village (the ‘scavengingfeed resource base’, SFRB—see Section 2.4) into highly nutritious, wellappreciated products.Although the output of traditional village chickens in terms of weight gainand number of eggs per hen per year is low, it is obtained with minimallabour and other inputs. This factor of low input and, consequently, low riskis one of the major advantages of village chicken production. It is importantto remember that it is undesirable for any initial improvements to villagechicken production to significantly raise the labour costs or financial risksinvolved in the activity.Simple changes in management of village chickens can significantlyimprove production and the living conditions of many rural families in termsof enhanced nutrition and income generation through the sale of surpluschickens or eggs. Improved village chicken production is therefore a low-costand important aspect of rural development.1.2About this manualThis manual follows on from ‘Controlling Newcastle disease in villagechickens: a training manual’ (Alders et al. 2002). That manual and associatedhandbooks (see the Bibliography for a list of titles) were designed to helpextension workers and community vaccinators to understand how Newcastledisease (ND) can be controlled in rural areas.In many places, ND is considered the most significant constraint to villagechicken production. Poultry farmers’ familiarity with the high mortality causedChapter 1 Introduction17

by ND has delayed the detection of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) inmany countries and complicated HPAI control measures. The effective control ofND will facilitate the early detection of incursions of HPAI by reducing mortalityin flocks and improving relations between farmers and animal health authorities.However, once ND is controlled, there are other diseases that will naturallyassume greater importance and which traditionally have received less attentionin research and extension programs. While none of these diseases is likelyto be individually as significant as ND, collectively they are very important andcan markedly reduce the potential benefits from ND control.As ND control improves, producers are motivated to take the next steps inimproving their chicken production. They talk about increasing flock size,controlling other diseases, reducing mortalities from predators, minimisingtheft, improving feeding and organising better marketing systems. Oncea successful ND control program is under way, extension agencies canprepare for the increase in the demand for information by organising trainingand information for extension officers. Until recently, however, most of theinformation relating to chicken production was directed toward intensive orsemi-intensive systems.This manual aims to provide, for extension workers and livestock officers,basic information on the production of traditional village chickens andhow productivity can be improved by introducing appropriate, low-costapproaches. The manual describes the initial steps that can be takento improve village chicken production. More costly techniques, such askeeping birds permanently in chicken houses and supplying only commercialfeed, are not covered in this manual, although information about thesetechniques can be obtained from documents posted on websites listedin the ‘Sources of further information’ section in Appendix 6. Theseother techniques could be tested by farmers after they are comfortableimplementing the suggestions described in this manual and they havea good understanding of the extra costs and labour that would be requiredfor more intensive chicken production.Although this manual includes information on ND, the more comprehensiveND training manual mentioned earlier should be referred to for controllingthis disease in areas where it is endemic. Once ND is under control, or inareas where ND is not endemic, farmers will be have a greater incentive toimplement the measures suggested in this manual.1.3How to use this manualThe manual is in three parts. Part 1 gives general information about village chicken production andhow to work with chicken producers. Part 2 describes management and husbandry practices that will improvechicken production.18Part 1 Village chickens and village chicken farmers

Part 3 deals with various poultry diseases and their control, with specialemphasis on ND.The manual is designed as a practical reference tool for extension workers,livestock officers and field veterinarians. Each chapter details improvementsthat could be applied by village chicken producers. The key extensionmessages of each chapter are summarised at its start.The appendixes provide more detailed information that will assist peopleworking with village chicken producers. While the main part of the manualdeals with practical information that would be of direct use to villagechicken producers, the appendixes are aimed at providing additionaltechnical information. Appendix 1 gives suggestions on how to use this manual as partof a training course. Appendix 2 describes participatory exercises that could be usedwith village communities to identify problems. Appendixes 3, 4 and 5 provide information on sample collectionand serology. Appendix 6 provides sources of other information and furtherreading.The order in which information in the manual could be used couldvary as follows, according to the principal problem to be addressedin a particular area:Principal problemNewcastle disease (ND)Part 1Part 3 (plus ND training manual)Part 2Other diseasesPart 1Part 3Part 2ManagementPart 1Part 2Part 3Supplementary feedingPart 1Part 2Part 31.4Promoting improved village chicken production usingminimal external inputsWhy should extension and development agencies promote improved villagechicken production and why should they promote improvements that requireminimal extra inputs?Village chicken production has traditionally been underrated inimportance as a vehicle for rural development. This

5.7 Feedstuffs that might be offered to chickens, and their nutrient content 54 5.8 Feeding confined chickens 54 6 Flock management 57 6.1 Keeping the flock healthy and productive 57 6.2 Flock size 58 6.3 General hygiene 59 6.4 Laying, brooding and hatching 60 6.5