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26Co-contraction For every muscle (agonist), there isan opposing muscle (antagonist) When both the main mover(agonist) and its opposing muscle(antagonist) are contracting, “cocontraction” is achieved The end result is “no movement”visible but maximum stability acrossa jointFigure 37: Co-contractionA: Contraction Co-contraction is very usefulto avoid hyperextension inknees and elbowsFigure 38: Hyperextension of the knee VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - AnatomyB: Co-contraction

27Stretch Reflex When a muscle is stretched, the mechanical receptors inthe muscle called “muscle spindle” will be stimulated A reflex response will then be triggered, causing thestretched muscle to contract This “Stretch reflex” is inborn and therefore doesnot require the participation of the higher brain forinterpretation; the same stimulation will cause sameresponse every time The “Stretch reflex” helps to protect the muscle againstbeing pulled apart but it also reduces the effectiveness oftraditional stretch (passive stretch)Golgi Tendon Reflex Golgi tendon is another mechanicalreceptors present in the tendon ofa muscle When stretched, the golgi tendonwill be stimulated and triggers the“Golgi Tendon Reflex”, causingthe attached muscle to relax andthereby being elongatedFigure 39: Golgi Tendon Reflex VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

28PNF PNF stretching, or “Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation” stretching,is commonly used in clinical environments to enhance both active andpassive range of motion in order to improve motor performance and aidrehabilitation PNF is considered an optimal stretching method when the aim is to increaserange of motion, especially as regards short-term changes Generally an active PNF stretch involves a shortening contraction of theopposing muscle to place the target muscle on stretch. This is followed byan isometric contraction of the target muscle PNF can be used to supplement daily stretching and to make quick gains inrange of motion – for example, to help athletes improve performancePNFTwo Principles: Reciprocal Inhibition Golgi Tendon Reflex Since there are two principles, there are severalways to conduct PNF One of the ways is to use both principles,“Slow reversal contract relax” VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

29Slow Reversal Contract RelaxMethod 1:1. First bring the muscle to a stretchedposition2. Apply tension so that the target muscle iscontracting isometrically (no movement)for 6 seconds (trigger Golgi tendon reflex)3. Relax the target muscle4. Contract its antagonist muscleconcentrically and stretch out the targetmuscle5. Repeat the above processes (2 – 4) untilthe end range is achieved6. Stay in the new range for at least 10seconds before coming out of the pose1. Dig heels into mat andengage hamstrings2. Engage quadriceps tostraighten the kneeFigure 40: Slow Reversal Contract Relax 1Slow Reversal Contract RelaxMethod 2:1. Press knees against elbows oneither side to engage hip adductormuscles2. Push knees towards matFigure 41: Slow Reversal Contract Relax 2 VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

30NOTES VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

311.5 VERTEBRAL COLUMNCONSISTS OF A SERIES OF 33IRREGULARLY SHAPED BONES,CALLED VERTEBRAE, 26 OFWHICH ARE MOVABLE.THESE VERTEBRAE ARE DIVIDEDINTO FIVE CATEGORIES:1. CERVICAL (7)2. THORACIC (12)3. LUMBAR (5)4. SACRUM (5 FUSED)5. COCCYX (4) VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

32Vertebral Column These bones compose thevertebral column, resulting in atotal of 26 movable parts in anadult In between the vertebrae areintervertebral discsFigure 42: Vertebral ColumnFunction of Vertebral Column Support the head and arms Permit freedom of movement Provides attachment for many muscles, theribs, and some of the organs Protects the spinal cord (extension from theBrain) VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

33Spinal CurvesWhen looked at from the side, thespine forms four curves: cervical,thoracic, lumbar, and pelvic curvesThe cervical curve: at the top of the spine composed of cervical vertebraeThe thoracic and lumbar curves: composed of thoracic and lumbarvertebraeThe pelvic or sacral curve: formed by the sacrum and coccyxThe spinal column: Allows human beings to stand upright Help to maintain the balance of theupper body The thoracic and pelvic curves aretermed primary curves, because theyalone are present during fetal life The cervical and lumbar curves arenot present in an infant The cervical curves forms aroundthe age of 3 months (when the babybegins to hold its head up) and thelumbar curve develops when a childbegins to walk (twelve or eighteenmonths)Cervical CurveThoracic CurveLumbar CurveSacral CurveFigure 43: Vertebral Column VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

34Cervical Vertebrae The first seven vertebrae (C1-7) Located at the top of the spinalcolumn Supportive framework for the neckand support the head The first cervical vertebrae is calledthe atlas and the second is calledthe axis (responsible for rotation ofcervical spine) Possesses bifid spinous processes,which is absent in C7 Small-bodiedFigure 44: Cervical VertebraeThoracic Vertebrae Twelve vertebrae with ribs anchor atthe rear to form rib cage (T1-12) Thoracic vertebrae are larger thancervical vertebrae and increase insize from top to bottom Distinguished by the presence ofcostal facets for the articulation ofthe heads of ribs Body is intermediate in size betweenthe cervical and lumbar vertebraeFigure 45: Vertebral Column VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

35Lumbar Vertebrae Five bones below thoracic spine (L1-5) Largest vertebrae in the spinal column Support most of the body’s weight Form attachments to many of theback muscles Has a large body Does not have costal facets nortransverse process foraminaFigure 46: Lumar VertebraeSacrum Triangular bone located just belowthe lumbar vertebrae (S1-5) Consists of four or five sacralvertebrae in a child Become fused into a single boneafter age 26 The sacrum forms the back wall ofthe pelvic girdle and moves with itB.A.Figure 47 A & B: Sacrum VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

36Coccyx Forms the bottom of the spinalcolumn (Co1-5) Consists of 3-5 bones that arefused together in an adult Many muscles connect to thecoccyxFigure 48: CoccyxIntervertebral Disc Made of fibrous cartilage Act as shock absorbers and allowthe back to move As a person ages, these discscompress and shrink, resulting ina distinct loss of height (generallybetween 0.5 and 2.0cm) betweenthe ages of 50 and 55Figure 49: Intervertebral Disk VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

37Spinal Canal Spinal canal vertebral canal spinalcavity The space in vertebrae through which thespinal cord passes. Enclosed within the intervertebral foramenof the vertebraeFigure 50: Spinal CanalYoga Pose Implication Cat Stretch Back BendFigure 51: Cat PoseFigure 52: Urdhva Dhanurasana/Chakrasana VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

38Anatomical Concept to Yoga Compression Tension ProportionNOTES VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

391.6 KNEE JOINT COMPLEXTHE KNEE IS A COMPLEX, COMPOUND JOINTCOMPRISING OF TWO SEPARATE JOINTS:1. THE PATELLO-FEMORAL JOINT2. THE FEMORO-TIBIAL JOINT THAT LINKS THEFEMUR WITH THE TIBIA. VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

40Knee Joint Complex Connecting the femur andthe tibia Since in humans the kneesupports nearly the entireweight of the body, it isthe joint most vulnerableboth to acute injury andto the development ofosteoarthritisFigure 53: Knee Joint ComplexPatello-Femoral joint Consists of the patella (asesamoid bone) which sits withinthe quadriceps tendon and thepatellar groove on the front ofthe femur through which it slidesFigure 54: Patello-Femoral Joint VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

41Femoro-Tibial Joint Links the femur with the tibiaFigure 55: Fibro-Tibial JointKnee ComplexMovement: Flexion Extension Rotation (Knee bent) VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

42Patello-femoral Joint Syndrome The patella and its tendon transmitpower from the quadriceps to thelower leg. Normally, as the kneebends, the patella slides smoothlyalong a groove in the thigh bone.However, under certain conditionsthe patella may experience forceswhich push it against the sides ofthe groove, causing pain Additionally, inflammation androughening of the smoothunderside of the patella mayoccur. Collectively, this processis referred to as patello-femoralsyndrome (PFS) The pain is usually located in thefront part of the knee, but may beon the inside, outside, or vaguelylocated. The pain can feel eithersharp or dull, and is often madeworse by squatting or walking downstairs. Sometimes there is grindingor clickingFigure 56: Patello-Femoral Joint SyndromePredisposing factors include:1. Training errors - excess hill work,stairs, or too much distance2. Biomechanical abnormalities overpronation, “knock knees”,poor pelvic control3. Muscle tightness - calf,hamstrings, iliotibial band, orvastus lateralis4. Muscle weakness - vastus medialisobliquus (VMO), gluteus VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

43Meniscus Cartilaginous elements within theknee joint Serve to protect the ends of thebones from rubbing on each otherand to effectively deepen thetibial sockets into which the femurattaches Plays a role in shock absorption There are two menisci in each knee,the medial meniscus and the lateralmeniscus Either or both may be cracked, ortorn, when the knee is forcefullyrotated and/or bentFigure 57: A & B MeniscusLigaments of the Knee Complex The integrity of the Knee complex is maintainedby the 4 ligaments and the muscles surroundingthe joint The 4 ligaments are:- Anterior Cruciate Ligament- Posterior Cruciate Ligament- Medial Collateral Ligament- Lateral Collateral Ligament VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

44Anterior Cruciate Ligament It connects from a posterio- lateralpart of the femur to an anterio-medialpart of the tibia. These attachmentsallow it to resist forces pushing the tibiaforward relative to the femur The ACL is often torn during suddendislocation, torsion, or hyperextensionof the knee. It is a very common injuryin hockey, skiing, skating and footballdue to the enormous amount ofpressure, weight and number of blowsthe knee must withstandFigure 58: Anterior Cruciate LigamentPosterior Cruciate Ligament It connects the posteriorintercondylar area of the tibia tothe medial condyle of the femur.This configuration allows the PCLto resist forces pushing the tibiaposteriorly relative to the femurFigure 59: Posterior Cruciate Ligament VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

45Collateral Ligaments The Medial Collateral Ligaments ison the medial side of the joint. Itis a broad, flat, membranous band,situated slightly posterior on themedial side of the knee joint It resists forces pushing the kneemedially (towards the body), whichwould otherwise produce valgus(knock knee) deformity The Lateral Collateral Ligaments is onthe lateral side of the joint. It resistsforces pushing the knee laterally(away from the body)Figure 60: Collateral LigamentsUnhappy Triad The injuries of anterior cruciateligament, the medial meniscus andthe medial collateral ligament areclosely connected together The close association between thesestructures is the main cause of the“unhappy triad”Figure 61: Unhappy Triad VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

46Yoga Pose Implication Warrior PoseFigure 62: Virabhadrasana - Warrior IINOTES VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

471.7 HIP JOINTFORMED BY: HEAD OF THE FEMUR AND THE CUP-LIKEACETABULUM OF THE PELVIS. IT IS A BALL AND SOCKETJOINT.THE HIP JOINT FORMS THE PRIMARY CONNECTIONBETWEEN THE BONES OF THE LOWER LIMB AND THEAXIAL SKELETON OF THE TRUNK AND PELVIS.THE DEPTH OF THE ACETABULUM IS INCREASED BY AFIBROCARTILAGINOUS RIM CALLED A LABRUM THATGRIPS THE HEAD OF THE FEMUR AND SECURES IT INTHE JOINT. VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

48Hip Joint The large head of the femur iscompletely covered in hyalinecartilage except for a small areacalled the fovea or pit. This isthe site of attachment for anintracapsular ligament (called theligamentum teres) that attachesdirectly from the head of the femurto the acetabulumFigure 63: Fevora & Ligamentum TeresHip Joint The head of the femur is attachedto the pelvis by a thin neck regionthat is often prone to fracturein the elderly, mainly due tothe degenerative effects ofosteoporosisFigure 64: Head of the Femur VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

49Hip Joint The strong but loose fibrous capsuleof the hip joints permits the hipjoint to have the second largestrange of movement (second onlyto the shoulder) and yet supportthe weight of the body, arms andheadFigure 65: Hip Joint CapsuleHip Joint Stability In the healthy hip joint the femoral headis continually in close and stable contactwith the socket during all movements The stability of the healthy hip joint isprovided by:- thick joint capsule- a system of joint ligaments built in thejoint capsule- ligament inside the hip joint itself(ligamentum teres) These joint structures create a passiveresistant force on the hip joint that keepsthe femoral head in close contact with thehip joint socket during all movements Moreover, the 19 muscles surrounding thehip joint provide further dynamic stabilityto the hip joint VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

50Hip Movement Flexion Extension Abduction Adduction InternalRotation ExternalRotation CircumductionQ AngleASIS The Q Angle (or quadriceps angle) isformed in the frontal plane by two linesegments: from tibial tubercle to the middle of thepatella from the middle of the patella to theASIS The typical Q-angle for men is 14degrees and for women is 17 degrees. Women usually have a higher Q angledue to their naturally wider pelvis. If measured laying down the angle willbe 1-3 degrees lower.Q-angleMidPatellaeTibialTubercleFigure 66: Q Angle VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

51Q Angle An abnormally high Q Angle cancause stress on the entire kineticchain of the lower extremitycausing many conditions from lowback pain to foot painFigure 67: Q Angle - HighQ AngleIncreases in Q Angle are associated with: femoral anteversion external tibial torsion laterally displaced tibial tubercle genuvalgus VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

52Q Angle Yoga Pose Implication Triangle Pose Lotus PoseFigure 68: Trikonasana - Triangle PoseFigure 69: Padmasana - Lotus PoseNOTES VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

531.8 SHOULDER GIRDLETHE MOST MOBILE JOINT IN THE HUMAN BODY.THE SHOULDER GIRDLE IS ABLE TO CIRCUMDUCTTHROUGH A FULL 360 IN THE SAGITTAL PLANE.THIS TREMENDOUS RANGE OF MOTION HOWEVERMAKES THE SHOULDER EXTREMELY UNSTABLE, ANDFAR MORE PRONE TO DISLOCATION AND INJURYTHAN OTHER JOINTS. VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

54Shoulder Girdle The most mobile joint in thehuman body Able to circumduct through a full360 in the sagittal plane This tremendous range of motionhowever makes the shoulderextremely unstable, far moreprone to dislocation and injurythan other jointsFigure 70: Shoulder Girdle - musclesShoulder Girdle4 different joints: Sternoclavicular joint Glenohumeral joint Acromoclavicular joint Scapulohumeral jointExploded viewFigure 71: Shoulder Girdle - 4 different Joints VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

55Glenohumeral Joint Commonly known as theshoulder joint A synovial ball and socket JointFigure 72: Glenohumeral (shoulder) Joint front viewGlenohumeral Joint Articulation between glenoid fossaof the scapula (shoulder blade) andhead of humerus A ball and socket joint that allowsfor big range of movementFigure 73: Glenohumeral (shoulder) Joint rear view VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

56Glenohumeral Joint Movement The glenoid fossa is shallow andcontains the glenoid labrum whichdeepens it and aids in stability 120 degrees of unassisted flexion,the glenohumeral joint is the mostmobile joint in the bodyFigure 74: Glenohumeral joint MovementGlenohumeral Joint Capsule A loose capsule (lax inferiorly) and therefore is at riskof dislocation inferiorly The long head of the biceps brachii muscle travelsinside the capsule A number of bursas in the capsule aid mobility The bursa are formed by the synovial membrane of thejoint capsule It is important to note that the shoulder joint is amuscle dependent joint as it lacks strong ligaments VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

57Glenohumeral Joint Movement Flexion Extension Abduction Adduction Internal rotation External rotation CircumductionShoulder Stabilisers The rotator cuff is ananatomical term givento the group of musclesthat act to stabilize theglenohumeral joint The rotator cuff musclesof the shoulder producean inward pulling force,and help to pull the headof the humerus into theglenoid fossaFigure 75: Shoulder Stabiliser muscles VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy

58Acromoclavicular Joint Located between the acromialprocess of the scapula (tip of theshoulder) and the distal end of theclavicle The capsule is reinforced by t

VIKASA YOGA - Foundation Teacher Training Manual - Anatomy 1 FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY 3 1.1 Anatomical Position 4 1.2 Anatomical Terms 5 1.3 Muscles and Action 7 Upper Extremity 8 Deltoid 8 Pectoralis Major 9 Biceps Brachii 9 Triceps Brachii 10 Rotator Cuf 10 Supraspinatus 11 Infraspinatus 11 Teres Minor 12 Lower Extremity 12