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a p p e a r s t o be in v o lu n ta ry e x p r e s s i v e behaviour.S im ilarly,if th e in d iv id u a l o f f e r s t h e o t h e r s a p ro d u c t or s e r v ic e , they w illo f te n find th a t d u rin g the in te r a c t io n th e re will be no tim e an dp l a c e im m e d ia te ly a v a i l a b l e for e a t i n g th e pudd in g t h a t thep roof c a n b e found in. T h e y will b e fo rc ed to a c c e p t s o m ee v e n t s a s c o n v e n tio n a l or n a tu ra l s i g n s of s o m e th in g not d i r e c t l y a v a i l a b l e to th e s e n s e s . In I c h h e i s e r ’ s t e r m s 1, t h e in d i vidu al w ill h a v e to a c t so th a t h e in te n tio n a lly or u n in te n tio n a l ly expresses h im s e lf , and th e o t h e r s will in turn h a v e to beimpressed in so m e way by him.We find, th e n , th a t w hen th e ind iv id u al i s in t h e im m e d ia tep r e s e n c e o f o th e rs , h is a c t i v i t y w ill h a v e a p r o m isso r y c h a r a c te r. T h e o t h e r s a r e l i k e l y to find th a t th e y m u st a c c e p t thein d iv id u a l o n f a ith , offe rin g him a ju st retu rn w h ile h e i s p re s e n t before them in e x c h a n g e for s o m e th in g w h o s e tru e v a lu ew ill not be e s t a b l i s h e d u n til afte r h e h a s left th e ir p r e s e n c e .(Of c o u r s e , th e o t h e r s a l s o liv e by in f e r e n c e in th e ir d e a l i n g swith th e p h y s i c a l world, but it i s only in th e world of s o c i a li n te r a c t io n th a t th e o b j e c t s ab o u t which th e y m ak e i n f e r e n c e swill p u r p o s e ly f a c i l i t a t e a n d h inde r t h i s in f e r e n tia l p r o c e s s .)T h e s e c u r i t y th a t they j u s t i f i a b l y feel in m aking in f e r e n c e sab o u t th e in d iv id u a l w ill vary, of c o u r s e , d e p e n d in g on suc hf a c t o r s a s th e am ount of p r e v io u s inform ation th e y p o s s e s sa b o u t him, but no am ount of s u c h p a s t e v i d e n c e c a n e n t ir e lyo b v i a t e th e n e c e s s i t y of a c tin g on th e b a s i s o f i n f e r e n c e s .L e t u s now tu rn from t h e o t h e r s to th e p o in t of v iew of thein d iv id u a l who p r e s e n t s h im s e lf before them . H e may w is h themto th in k highly of him, or t o think th a t he th i n k s h ighly of them,or to p e r c e iv e how in f a c t h e f e e ls toward them, or to o b ta in noc le a r - c u t i m p r e s s i o n ; he may w ish to e n s u r e s u f f i c ie n t harmonys o th a t the i n te r a c t io n c a n be s u s t a i n e d , or to d efrau d , g e t ridof, c o n f u s e , m is le a d , a n t a g o n iz e , or in s u lt them . R e g a r d l e s s o fth e p a r ti c u la r o b j e c t i v e w hich th e in d iv id u al h a s in mind and ofh i s m otive for h a v in g t h i s o b j e c t i v e , it will be in h i s i n t e r e s t sto c o n tro l the c o n d u c t of th e o th e r s , e s p e c i a l l y th e ir r e s p o n s i v et r e a tm e n t of him. 2 T h i s control is a c h ie v e d la rg e ly by in flu e n c in g t h e d e f in itio n of th e s i t u a t i o n w hich the o th e r s com e tofo rm u late , and h e c a n in f lu e n c e t h i s d e f in itio n by e x p r e s s i n gh im s e lf in s u c h a way a s to g iv e them th e kind o f im p r e s s io n' G u s t a v I c h e i s e r , ‘ M i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s in Human R e l a t i o n s ' , S u p plem en tto T h e A m e r ic a n J o u rn a l o f S o c io lo g y , LV, (S e ptem b er, 1949) p p . 6- 7.a i ! e r e 1 o w e m uch t o an u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r by Tom B u r n s of t h e U n i v e r s i t y ofE din burgh, w h ere the argum en t i s p r e s e n t e d r h at in a l l i n t e r a c t i o n a b a s i cu n d e r ly in g th em e i s th e d e s i r e of e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t to g u i d e a n d co n tro l th er e s p o n s e m ad e by the o t h e r s p r e s e n t .2

th a t w ill l e a d them to a c t v o lu n ta r ily in a c c o r d a n c e with h i sow n pla n . T h u s , w hen an i n d iv i d u a l a p p e a r s in th e p r e s e n c e ofo t h e r s , t h e r e w ill u s u a l l y be so m e r e a s o n for him to m o b iliz eh i s a c t i v i t y s o th a t it w ill c o n v e y a n im p r e s s io n to o t h e r s w hichit i s in h i s i n t e r e s t s to c o n v e y .I h a v e s a i d th a t when an in d iv id u a l a p p e a r s before o t h e r sh i s a c t i o n s w ill in f lu e n c e th e d e f in itio n of th e s it u a ti o n w hichth e y c o m e to h a v e .S o m etim es th e in d iv id u a l will a c t in ath o roughly c a l c u l a t i n g manner, e x p r e s s i n g h im s e lf in a givenway s o le ly in o rd e r to giv e th e kind of im p r e s s io n to o t h e r s th a ti s lik e ly to e v o k e from them a s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s e he is c o n c e r n ed to o b ta in . Som etim es th e in d iv id u a l w ill be c a l c u l a t i n g inh i s a c t i v i t y but be r e l a t i v e l y u n a w a re t h a t t h i s is th e c a s e .Som etim es he w ill in te n tio n a lly an d c o n s c i o u s l y e x p r e s s him s e l f in a p a r ti c u la r way, but c h i e f ly b e c a u s e the tr a d itio n of h isgroup or s o c i a l s t a t u s r e q u ir e t h is kind of e x p r e s s i o n an d notb e c a u s e o f an y p a r ti c u la r r e s p o n s e (o th e r th a n v ag ue a c c e p t a n c e or approval) th a t i s l ik e ly to be e v o k e d from th o s e im p r e s s e d by t h e e x p r e s s i o n .S om etim es the tr a d i tio n s o f ani n d iv i d u a l’s ro le w ill l e a d him to g iv e a w e ll-d e s ig n e d im p r e s s ion of a p a r t i c u l a r kind and y e t he may be n e i th e r c o n s c i o u s l ynor u n c o n s c io u s l y d i s p o s e d to c r e a t e s u c h an im p re ssio n . T h eo t h e r s , in th e ir turn, may be s u i t a b l y im p r e s s e d by th e in d iv i d u a l ’s e ff o rts to c o n v e y s o m e th in g , or may s c e p t i c a l l y ex am inea s p e c t s of h i s a c t i v i t y o f w h o se s i g n i f i c a n c e he i s not a w a re ,o r may m is u n d e r s ta n d th e s i t u a t i o n and com e to c o n c l u s i o n st h a t are w arra n te d n e ith e r by th e in d iv i d u a l’s in te n t nor by thef a c t s . In an y c a s e , in s o far a s the o t h e r s a c t as i f th e in d iv i d ual had co n v e y e d a p a r t i c u l a r im p r e s s io n , we may ta k e a f u n c t ional or p r a g m a tic view an d s a y t h a t th e in d iv id u a l h a s ’ e f f e c t i v e l y ’ p r o je c te d a g ive n d e f in i tio n of th e s i t u a t i o n and ' e f f e c t i v e l y ’ f o s te r e d th e u n d e r s ta n d in g th a t a g iv e n s t a t e o f a f f a ir so b ta in s .When w e a llo w th a t t h e in d iv id u a l p r o j e c t s a d e f in itio n o fthe s i t u a ti o n w hen he a p p e a r s before o th e rs , w e must a l s o s e echat th e o th e r s , how ever p a s s i v e their ro le may s e e m to be, willt h e m s e l v e s e f f e c t i v e l y p r o j e c t a d e f in itio n of the s i t u a t i o n byv irtu e o f th e ir r e s p o n s e to t h e in d iv id u a l and by virtu e of anyl i n e s of a c tio n th e y i n i t i a t e to him. O rd in arily we find th a t th ed e f in i tio n s of th e s i t u a t i o n p r o je c te d by th e s e v e r a l d iffe ren tp a r t i c i p a n t s are s u f f i c i e n t l y a ttu n e d to o n e a n o th e r s o t h a t openc o n t r a d ic t io n will not occ u r. I do not mean th a t th e re will beth e kind of c o n s e n s u s th a t a r i s e s w hen e a c h in d iv id u a l p r e s e n tc a n d id ly e x p r e s s e s w hat he r e a l l y f e e l s an d h o n e s tly a g r e e s3

with th e e x p r e s s e d f e e l i n g s of th e o t h e r s p r e s e n t. T h i s kind o fharm ony i s an o p ti m i s t i c id e a l an d in a n y c a s e n o t n e c e s s a r yfor th e sm ooth w orking of s o c i e t y . R a the r, e a c h p a r ti c ip a n t i se x p e c t e d to s u p p r e s s h i s im m e d ia te h e a r t f e l t f e e lin g s , c o n v e y in g a view of the s i t u a t i o n w hich he f e e l s th e o t h e r s w ill bea b l e to find a t l e a s t te m p o rarily a c c e p t a b l e . T h e m a in te n a n c eo f t h i s s u r f a c e of ag re em e n t, th is v e n e e r of c o n s e n s u s , i sf a c i l i t a t e d by e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t c o n c e a l i n g h i s own w a n ts b e h in ds t a t e m e n t s w hich a s s e r t v a l u e s to w hich ev e ry o n e p r e s e n t isl i k e l y to g iv e l i p - s e r v i c e . F u rth e r, th e r e i s u s u a lly a k in d ofd iv is io n of d e f in itio n a l la b o u r. E ac h p a r ti c ip a n t i s a l lo w e d toe s t a b l i s h th e t e n t a t i v e o f f ic ia l ru lin g r e g a r d in g m a tte rs w hicha r e v ita l to him b a t not im m e d ia te ly im portant to o th e rs , e .g .,th e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s and j u s t i f i c a t i o n s by w hich he a c c o u n t s forh i s p a s t a c t i v i t y ; in e x c h a n g e for t h i s c o u r t e s y h e r e m a in ss i l e n t or non-com m ittal on m a tte r s im p o rta n t to o th e r s but notim m e d ia te ly im p ortant to him. We h a v e th e n a kind of i n t e r a c t i o n a l modus vivendi.T o g e t h e r t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s c o n t r i b u te toa s i n g l e o v e ra ll d e f in i tio n o f th e s i t u a t i o n w hich in v o lv e s n o ts o much a r e a l a g re e m e n t a s to w hat e x i s t s but r a th e r a r e a lag r e e m e n t a s to w hose c l a i m s c o n c e r n in g what i s s u e s w ill b etem porarily honoured. R e a l a g r e e m e n t will a l s o e x i s t c o n c e m the d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a v o id in g an o pen c o n f li c t o f d e f i n i t i o n s ofthe s i t u a t i o n . 1 L e t u s refer to t h is le v e l of a g re e m e n t a s a' w o r k i n g c o n s e n s u s ’. It i s to be u n d e r s to o d t h a t t h e w orkingc o n s e n s u s e s t a b l i s h e d in o n e i n te r a c t io n s e t t i n g will be q u i t ed if fe r e n t in c o n t e n t from th e w orking c o n s e n s u s e s t a b l i s h e d in ad iffe ren t ty p e o f s e ttin g . T h u s , b e tw e e n two f r ie n d s a t lu n c h , ar e c ip ro c a l show of a f f e c tio n , r e s p e c t , and c o n c e r n for t h e o th e ri s m a in ta in e d . In s e r v i c e o c c u p a t i o n s , on t h e o th e r hand, th es p e c i a l i s t o f te n m a i n t a i n s a n im a g e of d i s i n t e r e s t e d in v o lv e ment in th e problem o f t h e c l i e n t , w hile t h e c l i e n t r e s p o n d s witha show of r e s p e c t for th e c o m p e t e n c e and in te g r ity of t h e s p e c i a l i s t . R e g a r d l e s s o f s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s in c o n t e n t, h o w ev e r, t h eg en e ral form of t h e s e w orking a r r a n g e m e n ts i s th e sam e.In n o tin g th e te n d e n c y for a p a r t i c i p a n t to a c c e p t th e d e f in i t i o n a l c l a i m s m a d e by t h e o t h e r s p r e s e n t , we c a n a p p r e c i a t ethe c r u c ia l im p o r ta n c e of t h e -information t h a t th e in d iv id u a linitially p o s s e s s e s or a c q u i r e s c o n c e r n in g h i s fellow p a r t i c i 1 An in t e r a c t i o n c a n be p u r p o s e l y s e t up a s a tim e a n d p l a c e for v o i c i n gd i f f e r e n c e s in o p in io n , but in s u c h c a s e s p a r t i c i p a n t s m ust be c a r e f u l toa g r e e no t to d i s a g r e e o n t h e proper t o n e o f v o i c c , v o c a b u l a r y , a n d d e g r e e o fs e r i o u s n e s s in w h i c h a l l a r g u m e n t s a r e to b e p h r a s e d , an d up on t h e m u tu alr e s p e c t w h ic h d i s a g r e e i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s m u s t c a r e f u l ly c o n t i n u e to e x p r e s sto w a r d o n e a n o t h e r . T h i s d e b a t e r s ' or a c a d e m i c d ef i n i ti o n of th e s i t u a t i o nmay a l s o be s u d d e n l y a n d j u d i c i o u s l y in v o k e d a s a way of t r a n s l a t i n g as e r i o u s c o n f l i c t o f v i e w s into o ne t h a t c a n be h a n d l e d w i th in a frameworka c c e p ta b le to all p re se n t.4

p a n t s , for it i s o n th e b a s i s o f t h i s in i t i a l in fo rm ation th a t t h ein d i v i d u a l s t a r t s to d e f in e t h e s i t u a t i o n and s t a r t s to build upl i n e s o f r e s p o n s i v e a c t i o n . T h e i n d i v i d u a l ’s in it ia l p r o je c tio nc o m m its him to w h a t h e i s p r o p o s i n g to be a n d r e q u i r e s him todrop a ll p r e t e n c e s of b e in g o th e r th in g s . A s t h e i n te r a c t io nam ong th e p a r t i c i p a n t s p r o g r e s s e s , a d d i t i o n s a n d m o d if ic a ti o n si n t h i s in i t i a l in fo rm atio n al s t a t e w ill of c o u r s e o c c u r, -but i t i se s s e n t i a l th a t t h e s e l a t e r d e v e lo p m e n ts be r e l a t e d withouc c o n tr a d i c t i o n to, and even b u ilt up from, t h e i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n s ta k e nby t h e s e v e r a l p a r t i c i p a n t s . It would seem th a t a n in d iv id u a lc a n more e a s i l y m a k e a c h o i c e a s to w hat l i n e of tre a tm e n t todem and from an d e x te n d to th e o th e r s p r e s e n t a t th e b e g in n in go f a n e n c o u n te r th a n h e c a n a l te r t h e l i n e of tr e a tm e n t t h a t i sb e in g p u r s u e d o n c e t h e in t e r a c t i o n i s u n derw ay.In e v e r y d a y life , of c o u r s e , t h e r e i s a c l e a r u n d e r s ta n d in gth a t f irs t i m p r e s s i o n s a r e im portan t. T h u s , t h e work a d j u s tm e n to f t h o s e in s e r v i c e o c c u p a t i o n s will o fte n h in g e upon a c a p a c i t yto s e i z e and hold t h e i n i t i a t i v e in t h e s e r v i c e r e la tio n , a c a p a c i t y th a t w ill r e q u ir e s u b t l e a g g r e s s i v e n e s s o n th e p a rt of t h es e r v e r w hen h e i s of lo w e r s o c io - e c o n o m ic s t a t u s th a n h isc l ie n t . W. F. Whyte s u g g e s t s th e w a i t r e s s a s a n e x a m p le :T h e firs c p o i n t t h a t s t a n d s o u t i s t h a t t h e w a i t r e s s who b e a r s upu n d e r p r e s s u r e d o e s n o t s im p ly r e s p o n d ro her c u s t o m e r s . S h e a c t s withs o m e s k i l l to c o n tr o l t h e i r b e h a v i o u r . ] T h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n t o a s k whenw e l o o k a t t h e c u s t o m e r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s , “ D o e s t h e w a i t r e s s g e t t h e jumpo n t h e c u s t o m e r , o r d o e s t h e c u s t o m e r g e t t h e jump on t h e w a i t r e s s ? ' 1T h e s k ille d w a itr e s s r e a l i z e s the cru cial nature o f th is q u es tio n . . . .T h e s k i l l e d w a i t r e s s t a c k l e s t h e c u s t o m e r w ith c o n f i d e n c e andw ith o u t h e s i t a t i o n .Fo r e x a m p l e , s h e may find t h a t a n e w c u s t o m e r h a ss e a t e d h i m s e l f b efo re s h e c o u l d c l e a r off t h e d irty d i s h e s a n d c h a n g e rhecloth.He i s now l e a n i n g on t h e t a b l e s t u d y i n g t h e m enu .She greetsh im , s a y s , “ May I c h a n g e th e co v e r , p l e a s eand, w ith o u t w a itin g foran a n s w e r , t a k e s h i s m e n u a w a y from him s o t h a t he m o v e s b ack from t h et a b l e , a n d s h e g o e s a b o u t h er work. T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , i s h a n d l e d p o lite lybut firmly, a n d t h e r e i s n e v e r a n y q u e s t i o n a s to who i s in c h a r g e . 1When t h e i n t e r a c t i o n th a t i s i n i t i a t e d by " f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n s ”i s i t s e l f m e re ly t h e in it ia l i n t e r a c t i o n in a n e x t e n d e d s e r i e s o fi n t e r a c t i o n s in v o lv in g t h e s a m e p a r t i c i p a n t s , we s p e a k of' 'g e t t i n g o ff on t h e right f o o t ” a n d feel th a t it i s c r u c ia l th a t wedo so . T h u s , o n e l e a r n s th a t s o m e t e a c h e r s t a k e t h e follow ingv iew :You c a n ' t e v e r ler th e m g e t t h e u p p e r h and on y ou o r y o u 'r e through.So I s ta rt out tough.T h e f i r s t day I g e t a new c l a s s in, I l e t themknow w h o ’s b o s s . . . .Y ou 'v e go t to s t a r t oil t ou gh , t h e n y o u c a n e a s eu p a s y ou go a l o n g .If y o u s t a r t o u t e a s y - g o i n g , w h e n y ou t r y to g e tt o ug h, t h e y ’ll j u s t l o o k a t y o u a nd l a u g h . 21 W. F . Whyte, 11 When Workers an d C u s t o m e r s M e e t , ” C h a p . VII, In d u strya m i S o c ie ty , e d . W . F . Whyte (N ew Y o r k : M cGraw-H ill, 1946), pp. 132-133? T e a c h e r i n t e r v ie w q u o te d by H ow ard S . B e ck er, " S o c i a l C l a s s V a r i a t i o n sin r h e T e a c h e r - P u p i l R e l a t i o n s h i p , " Journal o f E d u c a tio n a l S o c io lo g y ,XXV, 459.5

S im ilarly, a t t e n d a n t s ih m ental i n s t i t u t i o n s may feel th a t if t h enew p a t i e n t i s s h a rp ly put in h i s p l a c e th e f irs t day on th e warda n d m a d e to s e e who i s b o s s , much future d iffic u lty w ill bep r e v e n te d . 1G iv en t h e fac t th a t th e in d iv id u a l e f f e c tiv e ly p r o j e c t s ad e fin itio n o f t h e s it u a ti o n when h e e n t e r s th e p r e s e n c e ofo th e r s , w e c a n a s s u m e th a t e v e n t s may o c c u r within th e in te r a c t i o n w hich c o n t r a d ic t , d is c r e d it, o r o th e r w is e throw doubtupon t h i s p ro je c tio n . When t h e s e d i s r u p tiv e e v e n t s o cc u r, th ein te r a c t io n i t s e l f may com e to a c o n f u s e d and e m b a r ra s s e d h a lt.Some o f t h e a s s u m p tio n s upon which the r e s p o n s e s of the p a r t i c i p a n t s h ad b e e n p r e d ic a te d becom e u n te n a b le , and th e p a r t i c i p a n t s find t h e m s e l v e s lo d g e d in a n in te r a c t io n for which th es i t u a t i o n h a s been wrongly d e fin e d and i s now no lo n g e r de fined. At s u c h m om ents th e in d iv id u a l w h o s e p r e s e n t a t i o n h a sb ee n d is c r e d ite d may feel a s h a m e d w hile th e o t h e r s p r e s e n t mayf e e l h o s t i l e , and all th e p a r t i c i p a n t s may co m e t o feel ill ate a s e , n o n p lu s s e d , our of c o u n te n a n c e , e m b a r ra s s e d , e x p e r ie n c in g th e kind of an o m ie th a t i s g e n e ra te d w hen th e m inute socials y s t e m o f f a c e - to - f a c e in te r a c tio n b r e a k s down.In s t r e s s i n g t h e fact th a t th e in it ia l d e fin itio n of the s i t u a tio n p r o je c te d by a n in d iv id u al t e n d s to p ro v id e a p la n for th ec o - o p e ra tiv e a c tiv i ty th a t f o llo w s —in s t r e s s i n g t h i s a c tio n po in to f v ie w —we m u st n o t overlook th e c r u c ia l fac t th a t any pro j e c t e d d e f in itio n o f th e s i t u a ti o n a l s o h a s a d i s t i n c t i v e moralc h a r a c t e r . It i s t h i s moral c h a r a c t e r of p r o je c tio n s t h a t willc h i e f ly c o n c e r n u s in t h i s report. S o cie ty is o r g a n iz e d on th ep r in c i p le th a t any in d iv id u a l who p o s s e s s e s c e r ta in s o c i a lc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a s a moral right to e x p e c t th a t o t h e r s willv a l u e a n d tr e a t him in a co rre sp o n d in g ly a p p r o p r ia te way.C o n n e c te d with t h i s p r in c ip le i s a se c o n d , nam ely th a t an indi v id u a l who im p lic itly .o r e x p l ic i tly s i g n i f i e s th a t he h a s c e r ta ins o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ought to h a v e th is claim honoured byo t h e r s a n d o u g h t in f a c t t o be w hat h e c l a i m s h e is. In c o n s e q u e n c e , when a n in d iv id u al p r o j e c t s a d e f in itio n of th e s i t u a tio n and th e re b y m a k e s an im p licit or e x p l ic i t claim to be ap e r s o n of a p a r ti c u la r kind, he a u t o m a tic a lly e x e r t s a moraldem and upon th e o th e rs , o b lig i n g them to v a l u e and tr e a t him int h e m anner th a t p

EVERYDAY LIFE ERVING GOFFMAN University of Edinburgh Social Sciences Research Centre 9 George Square, Edinburgh S Monograph No. 2 1956. o. Masks are arrested expressions and admirable echoes of feeling, at once faithful, discreet, and superlative. Living things in c