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Mapping the Complexity of Forensic Science:Implications for Forensic Science EducationAhmad Nabil SamarjiSchool of EducationFaculty of Arts, Education, and Human DevelopmentVictoria UniversitySubmitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree ofDoctor of Philosophy in EducationDecember, 2010I

ABSTRACTOver the past two decades the field of forensic science has experienced a remarkabledevelopment and a substantially enhanced public profile. The prominence of forensicscience has resulted from scientific and technological advances, increased reliance oflaw enforcement agencies and judicial systems and its popularisation through the massmedia. Consequently, forensic science education has been characterised by a rapidexpansion in both the number of forensic science courses and the number of studentsenrolling in such courses. However, very little is published on forensic scienceeducation. This research aims to identify how best to organise and deliver forensicscience education. By doing so, the research aims to generate graduates who are moreproficient and with the knowledge and expertise needed for them to cope with thetechnological advances revolutionising forensic science and with ongoing securitydemands and challenges.In order to meet its aim, the research has investigated forensic science education fromits determining factors: forensic science knowledge, practice, and identity. The researchadopted a qualitative approach to undertake the investigation. A document analysis ofthe published curricula of 190 forensic science academic programs offered worldwideproduced an overview of the current status of forensic science education. Secondly, theresearch employed semi-structured interviews with a number of forensic scienceeducators, forensic science practitioners, and members of professions associated withforensic science about their conceptions of forensic science knowledge, practice, andidentity. This outcome of the methodology has been the proposition of critical featuresrelating to the nature of forensic science. These critical features have become the basisfor a consideration of the form of forensic science education.The study identified four zones of knowledge within forensic science. These zonesshowed ontological connections with the segmented nature of forensic science practiceand the cultural conflict existing within the field. The study found that the currentreigning paradigm of forensic science is the result of an incomplete shift from an oldexplicitly policed reigning paradigm towards a new explicitly scientific reigningII

paradigm. The research has led to the proposition of a set of curricular and pedagogicalmarkers which reflect the nature of forensic science and respond to the epistemologicaland ontological challenges existing within the forensic science field.III

Student Declaration“I, Ahmad Nabil Samarji, declare that the PhD thesis entitled‘Mapping the Complexity of Forensic Science: Implications forForensic Science Education’ is no more than 100,000 words inlength including quotes and exclusive of tables, figures,appendices, bibliography, references and footnotes. This thesiscontains no material that has been submitted previously, inwhole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree ordiploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is myown work”.Ahmad Nabil SamarjiAhmad Samarji21st December, 2010IV

First & Last, All Praises unto Allah, the Almighty, for Hisguidance, for providing me with the effort and the patience toconduct this research to completion. for everythingV

AcknowledgementsI like to acknowledge the invaluable and thoughtful guidanceand assistance provided by my supervisors, Associate ProfessorTony Kruger and Doctor Neil Hooley, during the researchjourney and writing of this thesis. Throughout this undertaking,their understanding, support, feedback, and constructive critiquehave helped keep me focused, challenged, and productive. Iwould also like to thank the staff of the school of education fortreating me as a member of the group in a friendly environmentof knowledge, support, and care.I also wish to pay tribute to all those interviewees whogenerously gave of their time and insights. The process hasbeen an enriching experience for me.VI

To my Mother, Ghazwa, the most precious person in mylife,To my Father, Nabil, my role model and great support,To my Sisters: Rima & Zeina,To my Brothers: Tarek, Omar, and Ahmad el Hakeem,To my Grandmother, Najda, the blessing of our family,To my Aunty Raoha, the aunt, the sister, and the bestfriend,To my Uncle Barrack, the uncle, the brother, and thebest friend,With love,Ahmad SamarjiVII

Table of ContentsABSTRACT . IISTUDENT DECLARATION . IVACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . VITABLE OF CONTENTS . VIIILIST OF FIGURES. XVCHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION . 11.1- THE SUBJECT OF THE STUDY .11.2- FORENSIC SCIENCE: A FIELD UNDER THE MICROSCOPE .31.3- FORENSIC SCIENCE: DEFINITIONS AND LANDSCAPE .51.3.1- DEFINITIONS . 51.3.2- LANDSCAPE . 61.4- FORENSIC SCIENCE DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION THROUGH HISTORY .91.4.1- PERIOD 287 BC- 1850 AD . 91.4.2- PERIOD 1851- 1950. 91.4.3- PERIOD 1951- PRESENT . 111.5- FORENSIC SCIENCE IN PUBLIC . 121.6- PUBLIC INTEREST CONSEQUENCES . 141.7- WHAT IS FORENSIC SCIENCE EDUCATION? A PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION . 141.8- FORENSIC SCIENCE EDUCATION . 161.9- FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE . 191.10- FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE . 201.11- FORENSIC SCIENCE IDENTITY . 221.12- PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION . 231.13- RESEARCH AIMS & QUESTIONS . 241.14- RESEARCH STANCE . 251.15- RESEARCH DESIGN . 261.16- APPROPRIATENESS OF THE METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH . 281.17- LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY . 29VIII

1.18- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY . 301.19- THESIS STRUCTURE . 301.20- CHAPTER SUMMARY. 33CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW . 352.1- INTRODUCTION . 352.2- THE EDUCATION BODY OF LITERATURE . 362.2.1-TERTIARY EDUCATION AND CURRICULA . 382.2.2-SCIENCE EDUCATION . 452.2.3- A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY: MEDICAL EDUCATION . 542.2.4- CURRICULAR INTEGRATION . 602.2.5- PEDAGOGIES AND LEARNING APPROACHES. 672.2.6- DECISION-MAKING ABOUT CURRICULAR AND PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES FROM A SOCIAL SCIENCEPERSPECTIVE . 812.2.7- THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN PROMOTING DISCIPLINE-SPECIFIC SKILLS, GENERIC SKILLS, ANDGRADUATE ATTRIBUTES. . 842.3- THE FORENSIC SCIENCE EDUCATION BODY OF LITERATURE . 872.3.1- FORENSIC SCIENCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION . 872.3.2- THE DETERMINING FACTORS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE EDUCATION: KNOWLEDGE, PRACTICE, ANDIDENTITY. 952.4- THE TWO BODIES OF LITERATURE: AN INFORMATIVE LANDSCAPE . 1162.5- CHAPTER SUMMARY . 118CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY . 1203.1- INTRODUCTION . 1203.2- METHODS OF INQUIRY IN EDUCATION . 1213.3- QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: DEFINITIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS . 1223.4- RESEARCH CASES WHICH REQUIRES QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY . 1223.5- STRATEGIES WITHIN QUALITATIVE INQUIRIES . 1243.6- THE QUALITATIVE NATURE OF THE STUDY . 1243.7- CHOICE OF METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH . 1253.7.1- DOCUMENT ANALYSIS. 1273.7.2- SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWING. 1313.7.3- FINAL ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION . 137IX

3.8- METHODOLOGY LIMITATIONS . 1403.9- CHAPTER SUMMARY . 141CHAPTER 4: DOCUMENT ANALYSIS . 1434.1- INTRODUCTION . 1434.2- LIST OF THE PARTICIPATING PROGRAMS. 1444.3- SELECTION CRITERIA . 1454.3.1- THE FIRST STAGE OF SELECTION: EXCLUSION-BASED CRITERION . 1464.3.2- THE SECOND STAGE OF SELECTION: REPRESENTATIVE CLASSIFICATION CRITERION . 1494.3.3- THE THIRD STAGE OF THE SELECTION: POINTS- BASED CRITERION . 1544.4- DATA CODING . 1574.5- DATA ANALYSIS AND IMPLICATIONS . 1594.5.1- KNOWLEDGE CONCEPTUAL ATTRIBUTES. 1594.5.2- PRACTICE CONCEPTUAL ATTRIBUTES . 1664.5.3- IDENTITY CONCEPTUAL ATTRIBUTES . 1704.6- THEMES GENERATED BY DOCUMENT ANALYSIS. 1794.7- GREY AREAS AWAITING CLARIFICATION . 184CHAPTER 5: CONCEPTIONS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE . 1875.1- INTRODUCTION . 1875.2- TOPIC CODING: CATEGORIES OF CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE ATTRIBUTES. 1905.2.1- CATEGORY 1: EDUCATION BACKGROUNDS AND EXPERIENCES OF PARTICIPANTS . 1905.2.2- CATEGORY 2: EMPHASISED FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE BASE AND COMPETENCIES. . 1955.2.3- CATEGORY 3: CURRICULAR APPROACHES THROUGH WHICH FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE IS TO BEORGANISED. 2065.2.4- CATEGORY 4: PEDAGOGIES REQUIRED TO EMPHASISE FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE . 2105.2.5- CATEGORY 5: DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN THE KNOWLEDGE-BASE AND COMPETENCIES OF FORENSICSCIENCE EXPERTS WITH TERTIARY EDUCATION AND THOSE WITHOUT. . 2145.3- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS . 2195.3.1- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE FIRST KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 2195.3.2- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE SECOND KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 2215.3.3- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE THIRD KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 2255.3.4- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE FOURTH KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 2265.3.5- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE FIFTH KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 227X

5.3.6- SUMMARY OF THE INTER-CATEGORICAL CONCEPTUAL ATTRIBUTES ACROSS THE FIVE CONCEPTUALKNOWLEDGE CATEGORIES. . 2285.4- FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE: A CROSS- CATEGORICAL SYNTHESIS. 2295.4.1- THE NATURE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE FROM A KNOWLEDGE PERSPECTIVE. 2315.4.2- THE GENERAL SET OF FORENSIC KNOWLEDGE EXEMPLARS . 2345.4.3- EDUCATION WHICH RESPONDS TO THE NATURE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE AND EMPHASISESKNOWLEDGE EXEMPLARS . 2405.5- CHAPTER SUMMARY . 245CHAPTER 6: CONCEPTIONS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE . 2476.1- INTRODUCTION . 2476.2- TOPIC CODING: CATEGORIES OF CONCEPTUAL PRACTICE ATTRIBUTES . 2496.2.1- CATEGORY 1: THE PLACE OF THE CRIME SCENE IN FORENSIC PRACTICE . 2496.2.2- CATEGORY 2: THE NOTIONS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE . 2526.2.3- CATEGORY 3: SEGMENTATION WITHIN FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE . 2576.2.4- CATEGORY 4: ESSENTIAL FORENSIC PRACTICE COMPETENCIES . 2616.3- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS . 2646.3.1- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE FIRST PRACTICE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 2646.3.2- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE SECOND PRACTICE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 2656.3.3- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE THIRD PRACTICE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 2676.3.4- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE FOURTH PRACTICE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 2686.3.5- SUMMARY OF THE INTER-CATEGORICAL CONCEPTUAL ATTRIBUTES ACROSS THE FOUR CATEGORIES OFDESCRIPTION. 2706.4- FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE: A CROSS- CATEGORICAL SYNTHESIS . 2716.4.1- THE NATURE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE . 2726.4.2- THE GENERAL SET OF PRACTICE EXEMPLARS . 2756.4.3- THE EDUCATION WHICH RESPONDS TO THE NATURE OF PRACTICE AND EMPHASISES THE IDENTIFIEDPRACTICE EXEMPLARS . 2846.5- CHAPTER SUMMARY . 286CHAPTER 7: CONCEPTIONS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IDENTITY . 2887.1- INTRODUCTION . 2887.2- TOPIC CODING: CATEGORIES OF CONCEPTUAL IDENTITY ATTRIBUTES . 2907.2.1- MULTIPLICITY OF FACTORS INFLUENCING FORENSIC SCIENCE IDENTITY . 290XI