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U.S. Advisory Commission on Public DiplomacySONYA FINLEYNATIONAL WAR COLLEGE, NATIONAL DEFENSE UNIVERSITYA 3CS FRAMEWORK FORCONCEPTUALIZING THE COMPETITIVEINFORMATION ENVIRONMENTthe dimming of the human intellect,and the disintegration of the moraland spiritual life of one nation by theinfluence of the will of another isaccomplished.1A century ago British historian and theoristJ.F.C. Fuller argued for leaders to recognize thetechnological innovation of armored warfareand its potential for changing the character ofwar.One hundred years later, practitioners andscholars are still looking at ways to understandand engage audiences in an informationenvironment that one expert has described as“an amorphous digital skin stretched acrossthe entire planet.”2 Given the perennialimperative to prepare PME students tofunction effectively in the global mediaspace, we challenged symposium paneliststo address theoretical as well as practicedbased approaches to understanding and usingcommunications technologies. The 3Cs modelFuller presciently envisioned how innovationsin information communication technologiescontinue to influence the character of war andexpand strategic competitions beyond physicalbattlefields in the future.[The] method of imposing the will ofone man on another may in turn bereplaced by a purely psychologicalwarfare, wherein weapons are notused or battlefields sought or loss oflife or limb aimed at; but, in place,the corruption of the human reason,06

Teaching Public Diplomacy(connectivity, content, and cognition) offers auseful conceptual framework to deconstruct,understand, and address the global informationspace in support of national security interests.3receivers. Disciplines as diverse as public policyand political science to engineering technology,cyber security, and business contribute insightsto aspects of connectivity.ConnectivityContentConnectivity encompasses the physical andvirtual media technologies by and throughwhich people communicate. The oldest formof media technology is people-to-peoplerelationships and the social networks formedwithin private and public spheres. Layeredon top of face-to-face personal relationships,information communication technologies(ICT) have increased the quantity, efficiency,and speed of social connections. Yet, onemust consider the range and intensity ofsuch connections. Despite the popularizationof six degrees of separation across popularculture, three degrees across social networksmay characterize the actual influence of one’sconnections.4Physical and virtual social connectionsand networks provide pathways for thetransmission of content. Content encompassesshared rhetoric and discourses, ideas andimages, as well as actions and behaviors thatcontinually shape how humans understandthemselves and the world around them.Communications and media, public relationsand rhetorical studies hone acumen in craftingpurposeful and persuasive content. Trendsover time highlight the evolving complexityin the sources and substance of content thatinfluences beliefs, attitudes, and humanbehavior.Typographically and rhetorically-based,authoritative-driven content characterizedby precise, concrete and contextual languagehistorically dominated connective pathways.Over time, societies have afforded moreprominence to image-based, entertainmentdriven content that in many cases employssubjective, abstract, emotionally-argumentativeand opinion-based language.6 In particular,with the advent of 24 hour cable news and theInternet, there has been a democratizationand explosion of such content. Within thiscrowded space, state and non-state actorsincreasingly also have reaffirmed efforts toprovide (and sometimes control) overarchingnarratives through powerful, symbolicstrategic communication.7 This “paradoxof plenty” of both emotive and rationalcontent taxes audiences’ attention, makingthe source’s character and reputation criticalin determining how audiences receive andprocess content.8As societies adopted the newspaper andtelegraph, radio and television, and theinternet and social media platforms, themodalities of connections also broadened. ICTinnovations in the 19th and early 20th centuriesestablished predominantly monologuedriven, technologically-based connectionsbased on the existing hardware capabilities.Today’s media technologies increasinglyenable multi-directional, dialogue-based andeven collaborative connections.5 Complexpublic-private dynamics including privatesector algorithms informed by businessmodels, and public sector regulations andlegislation influence the structure, reach,security (and even content, to an extent) ofthese technologically and commercially-basedconnections. The information environmentencompasses all such influences on theconduits of content between senders and07

U.S. Advisory Commission on Public DiplomacyTo enhance our ability to operate in the global informationspace, it is imperative for scholars and practitioners toaccount for human and virtual connections, appreciate theemotive and rational aspects of content, and consider theexisting conditions, beliefs, and attitudes that influencecognition and behavioral responses.CognitionIt is important to note that human cognition isinherently an individualized activity influencedby languages and cultures, experiences andemotions, including the trust one places ininformation sources. It is therefore essentialto understand the broader and daily context inwhich specific audiences are situated, as wellas their existing attitudes and beliefs in orderto craft and implement successful persuasivecommunicative activities. However, giventhe complexity of the human social conditionaround the globe, it is difficult to anticipateand evaluate cognitively based attitudinal andbehavior changes. Technological tools mayassist; yet most technologies are built accordingto the designers’ own biases and backgroundsand therefore do not yet have the ability torepresent a universal human cognitive process.As Walter Lippmann described in 1922,people create “pictures in our heads” and actaccording to those pictures.9 Human cognitioninvolves processing content that ultimatelycreates meanings, formulates attitudes, andshapes behaviors. Across time, humans havecreated shared narratives that influence themyriad of individual and collective identitiesand behaviors within societies. Cognitive,behavioral, social, and political psychology,as well as fields such as anthropology andsociology provide insights into the processesby which human brains translate content intomeanings and social behaviors, the aspirationof purposeful communications.The human brain is structured for automatic,instinctive responses as well as deliberative,logical responses to content, with a myriad ofcognitive biases operating throughout our life.1008

Teaching Public DiplomacyConclusionlegislation that affect the conduits of content.Content centers on the verbal, written, visualand physical messages and cues relayed byan increasingly crowded field of actors withdiffering reputations and sources of credibility.Ultimately, content is filtered through humancognitive processes that are biologically-based,but environmentally influenced. Intendedmessages are not always those received.Cognition works to create the “pictures in ourheads” and shape human responses.For centuries, national security and foreignpolicy practitioners have engaged inactivities designed to inform and influenceaudiences in support of national interestsand policy objectives. To successfully designand implement persuasive (and coercive)communicative strategies requires anunderstanding of the complex, competitiveinformation environment that is layeredupon and integrated within our physicalenvironment. The 3Cs of connectivity, content,and cognition provide a useful framework toguide scholars and practitioners through theprocess of teaching students to understand andengage in the global information space.The practice of communicating effectivelyin a competitive information environment isinformed by multidisciplinary scholarship. Toenhance our ability to operate in the globalinformation space, it is imperative for scholarsand practitioners to account for human andvirtual connections, appreciate the emotive andrational aspects of content, and consider theexisting conditions, beliefs, and attitudes thatinfluence cognition and behavioral responses.Elegant and enduring, the 3Cs frameworkencompasses the essential and ever-evolvingelements of the global information space.Connectivity highlights the multifacetedelements of media technologies that facilitatecommunication between senders and receivers.These include people-to-people networks aswell as the myriad of private and public sectorinformation communication technologiesand capabilities, policies, regulations, andEndnotes1 J.F.C Fuller, Tanks in the Great War 1914-1918 (New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1920), 320.2 Zachary Tyson Brown, “Myth versus Lethality: Losing the Plot in the Information War,” The Strategy Bridge (December 2, 2019).3 Dennis Murphy and Daniel Kuehl, “The Case for a National Information Strategy,” Military Review (September-October 2015): 70-83.4 Nicholas A. Christakis and James H. Fowler, Connected: The Surprising Power of Our Social Networks and How They Shape Our Lives(New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2009).5 Geoffrey Cowan and Amelia Arsenault, “Moving from monologue to dialogue to collaboration: the three layers of public diplomacy,” The Annals of the AmericanAcademy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 616 (March 2008): 10-31.6 Lance Strate, Amazing Ourselves to Death. Neil Postman’s Brave New World Revisited (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., 2014);Jennifer Kavanagh, William Marcellino, Jonathan S. Blake, Shawn Smith, Steven Davenport, and Mahlet G. Tebeka, “News in a Digital Age: Comparing thePresentation of News Information over Time and Across Media Platforms,” “Facts Versus Opinions: How the Style and Language of News Presentation is Changingin the Digital Age,” RAND (2019).7 U.S. Department of Defense, Strategy for Operations in the Information Environment (2016).8 Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004).9 Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Dover, 2004).10 Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011).09

U.S. Advisory Commission on Public DiplomacyRICHARD WIKEPEW RESEARCH CENTERATTITUDES AND THE INFORMATIONENVIRONMENT FOR PUBLICDIPLOMACYThe information space for public diplomacyprofessionals has changed dramatically inrecent years, with the development of newtechnologies and platforms, and the emergenceof an increasingly interconnected world.Practitioners have more tools at their disposalthan ever, but they also face more competingvoices than in the past. And they mustcommunicate with their audiences at a time ofdecreasing public trust in institutions such asmedia and government.them, but many also believe new technologiesare having negative consequences for politicsand society. At the same time, diplomatslooking to communicate with audiences aboutthe U.S. face a complex environment wheremany have lost confidence in the world’sleading superpower, but they still want to seethe U.S. play a leadership role in solving globalchallenges.Trust in the United States has waned in recentyears as well, creating challenges for Americanpublic diplomats. President Donald Trump issignificantly less popular than his predecessorBarack Obama across much of the globe,and Trump’s unpopularity has led to a morenegative image for the U.S. in many nations.Understanding public opinion is crucial forunderstanding how people get and shareinformation, as well as for understanding howthey think about the U.S.One of the major global trends Pew ResearchCenter surveys have documented in recentyears is the explosive growth of informationand communication technologies. In particular,internet and social media usage has expandedrapidly, and while there is still a digital dividebetween wealthier nations and the rest, thatdivide is shrinking. Across 18 economicallyadvanced nations surveyed in 2018, a median of90% said they use the internet, while 67% usedsocial media. Across nine emerging economies,a median of 60% used the internet while 49%were social media users.1A Shifting Information EnvironmentThese two topics are core subjects for theinternational public opinion research weconduct at the Pew Research Center, and theyare central to the work of public diplomacy.On both fronts, diplomats today must navigatean increasingly complicated public opinionterrain. Publics are learning more about theworld through the new channels available toThese technological changes are clearly havinga significant impact on politics and society, andaverage citizens see a mixture of both positiveand negative effects. On the positive side,people say they are becoming more informed.A 2018 Pew survey of 11 emerging economies10

Teaching Public Diplomacyaround the world found a median of 78% acrossthese nations saying that access to mobilephones, the internet, and social media havemade people more informed about currentevents. And three-quarters of social mediausers said they frequently or occasionally comeacross content that introduced them to a newidea.2Thus, public diplomacy practitioners mustkeep in mind that many people believe thesenew platforms and channels are providingthem with opportunities to learn more aboutthe world, but they are also wary of some of thecontent they see online – they’ve learned thatsocial media can be a place for manipulation,deception, and social division.However, most of those surveyed also feltthat the internet and social media have madeit easier to manipulate people with falseinformation and rumors. And most social mediausers said they regularly see content that isobviously untrue, as well as content that makespeople feel negatively about groups of peopledifferent from them.However, online platforms can also be a placefor getting news. In a 2017 Pew study, a medianof 36% across 17 advanced economies, and amedian of 33% across 21 emerging economies,said they turn to social media at least oncea day to get news.3 In nearly every countrysurveyed, young people were significantly morelikely to get news daily via social networking.MIXED VIEWS ON THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL MEDIA% of adults who say access to mobile phones,the internet and social media have madepeople More informedabout currenteventsEasier tomanipulate withfalse information& rumors% of social media platform andmessaging app users who frequently/occasionally see articles or other contentwhen they use social media that Introduces themto a new idea78%Seems obviouslyfalse or untrue72%Makes peoplefeel negativelyabout groups ofpeople differentfrom them75%68%56%Note: Percentages are medians based on 11 countries. Social media and messaging app users include thosewho said they use one or more of the seven specific online platforms measured in this survey.Source: Mobile Technology and Its Social Impact Survey 2018.PEW RESEARCH CENTER11

U.S. Advisory Commission on Public DiplomacyFor example, 81% of Vietnamese ages 18-29use social media for news on a daily basis,compared with just 3% among those 50 andolder.Europe. Perhaps unsurprisingly, Canadiansexpress the strongest interest in news about theirneighbor to the south – 78% follow it closely.However, roughly six-in-ten or more also follownews on the U.S. closely in the Netherlands,Japan, Germany, Australia, the United Kingdom,South Korea, Tanzania, and Kenya.The same 2017 survey asked respondents aboutthe types of news they follow. As one mightexpect, national and local news top the list.Still, in many countries there is substantialinterest in international news. Across the 10European nations polled, a median of 65% saidthey follow international news closely.America’s Declining ImageAmerica’s global image has suffered a sharpdownturn over the past few years. The shiftfrom the Obama administration to the Trumppresidency was an unwelcome change formany around the world, and in some places thedifference in ratings for the two presidents wasdramatic. For instance, while a remarkably highWhile there is less overall interest in newsspecifically about the U.S., substantial numbersdo follow U.S. news in many nations, especiallyin the Asia-Pacific, sub-Saharan Africa, andHOW CLOSELY DO YOU FOLLOW NATIONAL, LOCAL, INTERNATIONAL, AND U.S. NEWS?Regional medians saying they closely follow each type of newsNational newsLocal newsInternational newsU.S. news*Middle %78%GLOBAL MEDIANGLOBAL MEDIAN* Question about U.S. news was not asked in the United States.Note: Global median across 38 countries. Europe regional median excludes Russia.Source: Spring 2017 Global Attitudes Survey.PEW RESEARCH CENTER1251%40%35%32%68%57%GLOBAL MEDIAN-48%GLOBAL MEDIAN

Teaching Public DiplomacyPublic diplomacy practitioners must keep in mind thatmany people believe these new platforms and channelsare providing them with opportunities to learn more aboutthe world, but they are also wary of some of the contentthey see online – they’ve learned that social media can be aplace for manipulation, deception, and social division.93% of Swedes expressed confidence in Obamato do the right thing regarding world affairs in2016, only 10% said the same about Trump thefollowing year.In our 2019 survey, a global median of just 29%had confidence in Trump.4 Views of the U.S.were more positive – a median of 54% gavea favorable rating – although ratings for thecountry were also down significantly from theObama years in most nations where trends areavailable.CONTINUING NEGATIVE RATINGS FORTRUMP AND U.S. IN GERMANYAmong Germans Germany illustrates how confidence in theAmerican president and attitudes toward theU

Executive Summary. Vivian S. Walker, Executive Director . U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy. 05. Conceptualizing the Information Space. 06 A 3Cs Framework for Conceptualizing the Competitive . Information Environment. Sonya Finley, National War College, National Defense University. 10. Attitudes and the Information Environment for .