Transcription
An Analysis of Supervisionfor Social Work Licensureguidelines on supervision for regulators and educators
2009 by the Association of Social Work Boards. All rights reserved.Association of Social Work Boards400 South Ridge ParkwaySuite BCulpeper, VA 22701www.aswb.org(540) 829-6880(800) 225-6880
Table of ContentsExecutive Summary . 1Identification of Competencies. 3Identification of KSAs Needed to Provide Supervision for Licensure . 6Linking Competencies to Relevant KSAs . 7Supervisor Qualifications for Independent Practice Licensure Supervision . 7Determining the Criticality of Competencies . 8Summary. 9Appendix A: Task Force Members . A-1Appendix B: Supervisory Competencies Grouped by Domain . B-1Appendix C: KSAs Required to Supervise for Social Work Licensure . C-1Appendix D: Competencies and Related KSAs . D-1Appendix E: Competency Ratings and Rating Materials . E-1Table: Competency Ratings by Importance, Frequency, Criticality, and AcquisitionCompetency Rating Scales and Instructions
Executive SummaryThis report summarizes theresults of a study conductedto identify the competenciesand technical knowledge,skills, and abilities (KSAs)required of individuals whoprovide supervision to socialworkers preparing forlicensure. Further, thecompetencies needed toprovide appropriate andmeaningful supervision tothose seeking licensure werelinked to the relevant KSAs inorder to document bestpractices in social worksupervision. These data canalso provide input to the1.2.3.4.Association of Social WorkBoards’ (ASWB) Model SocialWork Practice Act.An ACT Industrial/Organizational Psychologist,the job analyst, met withASWB’s Supervision TaskForce comprised of subjectmatter experts (SMEs) todiscuss the supervisionrequirements pertinent to thelicensure process over threedays (October 12–14, 2007),with additional follow-upactivities completed over thenext few months. Theanalysis included the followingsteps:identifying the competencies needed to supervise for licensuredetermining the criticality of the competenciesidentifying KSAs to demonstrate the competencieslinking the competencies to the relevant knowledge, skills, andabilitiesThe analysis produced: the competencies needed to supervise for licensure purposesgrouped by domainthe competencies and their ratings of importance and frequency(i.e., “criticality”)the competencies and their ratings of acquisitionthe KSAs required by the competenciesthe association between the competencies and KSAsa narrative description of the characteristics embodied by themodel supervisor who oversees others for licensureAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSURE1
The Goals for the AnalysisIndications are that the work done by the Supervision TaskForce has been needed for some time for use by jurisdictionsas they develop supervision requirements in their laws andregulations, and to support curriculum design for supervision.Such a close look at supervision for social work license, bySubject Matter Experts (SMEs) under the direction of anorganizational psychologist, has not been done before. Theresults should serve as a strong basis for decision-making byregulatory boards as they work to ensure better qualifiedsupervisors and more productive supervision. The reportshould be equally useful as a foundation for education,training and development programs that support current orfuture supervisors who guide social workers through thelicensure process.AN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSURE2
Identification of CompetenciesACT Industrial/Organizational Psychologist Carol D. Ogletree, PhD., met withthe ASWB Supervision Task Force to complete the analysis of the requirementsof supervising for licensure purposes on October 12–14, 2007, in Culpeper,Virginia. Follow-up activities to rate the competencies for importance,frequency, and acquisition were completed individually over the next severalmonths.The thirteen task force members (the “SMEs”) had considerable experience inthe practice of social work, including roles as academicians, practitioners, andadministrators. (See Appendix A for a complete list of the SMEs.) Eleven hadperformed the activities pertinent to supervising social workers for licensure foran average of 13.6 years (ranging from two years to 28 years), six had supervisedother supervisors who oversee those seeking licensure for an average of eightyears (ranging from one year to 20 years), and eight had provided instruction tostudents in clinical social work training programs for an average of 10.6 years(ranging from one year to 30 years).Two SMEs were academicians whose primary role was to provide education insocial work; one SME was an academician whose primary role wasadministrative; two SMEs were practitioners whose primary role was to providedirect service to clients; three SMEs were practitioners whose primary role wasadministrative; three SMEs indicated a distribution of administrative andpractitioner tasks; and two SMEs selected Other (i.e., retired or private practice).These data are also represented in the following chart.Job Status of SMEsNumber ofSMEsAcademician – primary role is to provide social work education2Academician – primary role is administrative1Practitioner – primary role is to provide direct service to clients2Practitioner – primary role is administrative3Academician (providing education)/Practitioner (administrative)1Academician (providing education)/Practitioner (providingservices to clients)2Other – retired/private practice2AN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSURE3
The average age reported by the SMEs was 56.4 years and they rangedin age from 50 to 61. Ten were female and three were male. Tenreported their race as Caucasian; two reported as Black or AfricanAmerican; and one reported as Asian or Pacific Islander. Two of thethirteen task force members were Canadian. A list of the task forcemembers can be found in Appendix A.The SMEs first established the scope and expected outcomes of themeeting. They determined that the primary objective was to documentbest practices for the general domain of supervision for licensure, and todocument more specific best practices (i.e., for supervision for a specificpractice area such as clinical social work), should time permit. Ultimately,the meeting time only allowed for focus on the general domain ofsupervision for licensure purposes, regardless of the specialty areainvolved.The SMEs were provided with a variety of resources prior to and duringthe meeting for reference including, but not limited to: KSA lists for all ASWB examination levels Compilation of data from the ASWB jurisdiction comparisonstudy regarding social work supervision for licensure in currentregulation ASWB Model Social Work Practice Act Forms and regulations from various jurisdictions (e.g., NorthCarolina Supervisor Manual; Texas Supervision Course MinimumStandards; Florida Supervised Experience form; MinnesotaSupervision Verification form; Minnesota Social Work SupervisionAgreement; Alberta Registration of Supervision Plan) ASWB’s Clinical Supervision Curriculum Guide ASWB Analysis of the Practice of Social Work, 2003, Final Report NASW Code of Ethics NASW and ASWB standards for technology and social workpractice Clinical Supervision: A Practice Specialty of Clinical Social Work(a Position statement of the American Board of Examiners inClinical Social Work [ABECSW])Using their breadth of social work experience and familiarity with theresources available to them, the SMEs began to draft a list ofAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSURE4
competencies required of supervisors who function as an important partof the licensure process. The job analyst took notes electronically. Anadditional resource for their brainstorming efforts was the ABECSWposition statement, which presented four domains of clinical supervision(clinical supervision of direct practice, treatment-team collaboration,continued learning, and job management). Through further discussion,the SMEs modified and expanded the domain categories from thisposition statement and aligned them with the objectives of the currenttask force and its priorities, ultimately yielding six domains: Supervisory Relationship and Process Supervision of Practice (i.e., the supervisee’s practice) Professional Relationships Work Context Evaluation Life-long Learning and Professional ResponsibilityThese domains were generated to conform to the following description:Domain Serves as a title for a cluster of related tasks (usually 6-20 tasks perdomain) Is a general, not specific, statement of the work that is performed(usually 6-12 domains per job) Stands alone (is meaningful without reference to the job) Avoids references to worker behaviors, tools, and knowledgeneededAs the SMEs generated the competencies, they sorted them into theappropriate domains. The SMEs continued to refine the competenciesand regroup them according to the domains they had identified. Theyfurther refined the domain names as they discussed the logic used togroup competencies into domains. The SMEs reviewed the list severaltimes to ensure that the domain titles accurately reflected thecompetencies associated with them and that the related competencies hadbeen identified. The list of competencies needed to supervise forlicensure, as grouped by domain, can be found in Appendix B.AN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSURE5
Identification of KSAs Needed to Provide Supervision for LicensureIn this step of the focus group meeting, the SMEs developed a listindicating the technical knowledge required for performing thecompetencies needed by those who supervise others for the purpose oflicensure. The SMEs were provided with a simplified definition andexamples of knowledge from the book Applied Measurement Methods inIndustrial Psychology (Davies-Black Publishing, 1997) written by DeborahL. Whetzel and George R. Wheaton. The definition and examplesprovided to the SMEs are shown below:Knowledge refers to specific types of information people needin order to perform a job. Examples of the types of knowledgeidentified for performing the job of electrician are: Knowledge of National Electrical Code Knowledge of building specifications Knowledge of blueprint symbolsUsing the list of competencies, the SMEs brainstormed to generate a listof KSAs needed for successful performance as a supervisor. Guiding thedevelopment of this list were numerous resources, particularly the KSAsthat comprise ASWB’s current Clinical Examination. As the discussionproceeded, the group retained, edited, added, or deleted text to makesure that the final list would accurately and completely represent thetechnical KSAs required for performing the competencies of thesupervisory role during the licensure process.As a final review, the SMEs reviewed the competencies to ensure that therequired KSAs were included on the list. The final list of KSAs needed toperform the competencies can be found in Appendix C.AN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSURE6
Linking Competencies to Relevant KSAsAs a last step, the SMEs reviewed the list of competencies in order todocument the KSAs (identified by number) required to effectivelyperform each competency. To accomplish this task most efficiently, thetask force members divided themselves into subgroups so that eachsubgroup could discuss one or two domain(s) of competencies andgenerate a preliminary list of KSAs that they could link to individualcompetencies. Next, the complete task force reassembled in order for thesubgroups to present their rationale for the links made between theirassigned competency grouping(s) and the KSAs. The complete groupfurther supplemented the linking data by revising some linkings or byadding additional KSAs to make the overall KSA list complete. A listing ofcompetencies and their related KSAs can be found in Appendix D. Foreach competency, the KSAs required for job performance are listed.Supervisor Qualifications for Independent Practice LicensureSupervisionTo close the meeting, the SMEs reflected on the three-day discussion andoutlined general requirements for a supervisor who is responsible forguiding social workers through the licensure process. The qualificationsfor supervision are: A license to practice in the area in which supervision is going to beprovided Specified coursework in supervision and/or a specified minimumnumber of continuing education hours A minimum of three years of postlicensure experience in asupervisory role For ongoing currency, continuing education courses insupervision that are updated every five years, and approved bythe licensing boardDetermining the Criticality of the CompetenciesOver the months following the task force meeting, the task forcemembers completed a process to evaluate the list of competencies basedon multiple criteria, i.e., Criticality and Acquisition. The SMEs receivedAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSURE7
their rating materials (i.e., competency list, instructions, rating scales) viaemail and then returned their completed rating sheet to ASWB andACT.Rating Scale Definitions. Criticality is the extent to which a competency iscritical to the performance of the job. To determine Criticality, each SMEevaluated each competency in terms of its Importance and Frequency.Importance refers to the competent performance of the competency toeffective social work supervision. Frequency refers to how often asupervisor should perform an activity (demonstrate that competency).Ratings on both scales ranged from 1 to 4 (“This task is of lowimportance/seldom performed” to “This task is of extremeimportance/performed daily.”) The mean Importance rating for eachtask was then multiplied by the mean Frequency rating for eachcompetency to produce the Criticality rating for each competency. Theseratings represent aggregate information rather than information reachedby the consensus of the SMEs. The criticality values for this analysisranged from 2.6 (for the least critical competency) to 14.0 (for thecompetency rated most critical), with a maximum possible Criticalityrating of 16. Ten SMEs participated in the rating process. The Criticalityratings and rating materials can be found in Appendix E.The SMEs also rated the competencies for Acquisition by considering thefollowing questions: How difficult was this task to learn? How muchpractice was required to become proficient at this task/activity in order toperform this activity independently? The mean Acquisition ratings arealso shown in Appendix E.AN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSURE8
SummaryThe work of the ASWB Supervision Task Force is the first detailed,professionally organized analysis of the work of providing supervision forsocial workers for purposes of licensure. The results can be used in anumber of ways in social work education and regulation. ASWB itself willuse it to determine changes in the Model Social Work Practice Act, usedas a resource by member jurisdictions as they change and develop theirown laws and regulations.This final report provides a basis for both regulators and educators to useto underpin requirements and curriculum design for current and futuresupervisors who guide social workers through the licensure process. Itcan be used to support curriculum design for formal education incolleges and universities, and for continuing education in many forms.For instruction that is already available, it can serve as a measurementcomparison. Another use ASWB will have for it is in evaluating courseofferings in its Approved Continuing Education (ACE) Program.Supervision is an important step in the development of future socialworkers. Now that the analysis has been done, supervision has afoundation aside from custom or anecdotal evidence of what works anddoes not work. It can also serve as a basis for further research.AN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSURE9
Appendix AMembers of the ASWB Supervision Task ForceMembersDr. Dorinda Noble, ChairProfessor and DirectorSchool of Social WorkTexas State UniversitySan Marcos, TexasGary BaileyBurlington, North CarolinaPrivate Practitioner, Alamance Lifeworks EAPFormer Adjunct Professor, Elon University, North CarolinaDavid BoehmPrivate PractitionerBlue Ridge Counseling ServicesMarion, VirginiaJames CampbellRegional DirectorInterior HealthHillside Center at RIHKamloops, British ColumbiaDr. Jacalyn ClaesAssistant ProfessorDepartment of Social WorkUniversity of North CarolinaGreensboro, North CarolinaDr. Jeannie FalknerAssistant Professor of Social WorkDelta State UniversityCleveland, MississippiAlison HadleyPrivate PractitionerSpokane, WashingtonAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSUREA-1
Dr. Jane MathesonChief Executive OfficerWood’s HomesCalgary, AlbertaDr. Anoma MullegamaManager, Medical Social ServicesMayo ClinicRochester, MinnesotaAnne Brantley SegallConsultant and ResearcherWayne State University School of MedicinePast Adjunct Faculty, Graduate School of Social WorkUniversity of MichiganAnn Arbor, MichiganDr. Saundra StarksAssociate Professor of Social WorkWestern Kentucky UniversityBowling Green, KentuckyDr. Sallie WatkinsRetired as Director of Social Work at Bryce Hospital, AlabamaFormer Faculty Member, University of Alabama at BirminghamFormer Adjunct Faculty, University of AlabamaTuscaloosa, AlabamaASWB StaffDonna DeAngelis, Executive DirectorAssociation of Social Work Boards400 South Ridge Parkway, Suite BCulpeper, VirginiaKathleen Hoffman, Deputy Executive DirectorAssociation of Social Work Boards400 South Ridge Parkway, Suite BCulpeper, VirginiaACT StaffCarol Ogletree, PhD.Industrial/Organizational PsychologistProfessional Development Services, ACTIowa City, IowaAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSUREA-2
Appendix BSupervisory Competencies Grouped by DomainSupervisory Relationship and Process1. Conduct self assessment (supervisor)a. Assess supervisory style Interactional Learning Communication Workingb. Assess strengths/limits (personal, professional)c. Assess awareness of professional knowledge and competenciesd. Assess values and attitudes2. Establish the supervisory relationshipa. Develop contract Clarify purpose of supervision Clarify goals of supervision Clarify respective roles, duties, responsibilities Define structure/method of supervision Determine authority and accountability (for issues such asconfidentiality; record keeping; timeliness) Specify terms of shared supervision (if necessary) Establish fee structure (if necessary) Establish length, frequency, and duration of supervision Determine modality of supervision (face-to-face, individual, group,technology-assisted) Maintain documentation for purposes of: credentialing and/or licensing tracking supervision process Specify methods of evaluation Establish terms of terminationb. Develop an environment that enhances communication and reflects agrowing working alliance between supervisor and superviseec. Establish and maintain boundariesd. Monitor and address the impact of relational dynamicse. Address parallel processf. Address thoughts, feelings, and behaviorg. Manage conflict/disagreementh. Manage power and authorityi. Provide constructive feedback Validate effective performance Offer support in areas that need improvementAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSUREB- 1
j. Solicit/respond appropriately to feedback from superviseek. Manage termination processSupervision of Supervisee’s Practice1. Integrate into ongoing practice the supervisee’s experience using reflection, analysis,and contextual attributes of the case situation2. Facilitate the acquisition of advanced social work knowledge in assessment, caseplanning, intervention, and evaluation3. Follow up on case planning – investigate/reflect on what happened, and revise plansa. Identify what’s workingb. Determine what’s problematic and restructurec. Offer guidance and support for improvementd. Evaluate4. Guide/direct supervisee to ensure ethical practices within regulations and lawsaffecting social work practice5. Resolve professional ethical dilemmas in providing service to clients6. Assist supervisee in the appropriate use of advocacy with different systems7. Develop learning plans with supervisee using (elements such as):a. Formal case assessments and/or presentationsb. Writing assignmentsc. Conference attendanced. Current research (articles, books)e. Involvement in professional organizationsf. Creative arts (movies, plays, novels, art therapy, music, museum visits)8. Follow up on and modify learning plans9. Address issues of personal safety and riskProfessional Relationships (e.g., external providers, managing teams, other professionals,colleagues, supervisors)1. Supervisees and their colleaguesa. Work with supervisee to create collaborative relationshipsb. Assist supervisees to develop teamwork skills2. Recognize and respect socio-cultural differencesa. Advise supervisee on strategies to manage challenges3. Relationship with other systems (inside/outside the work setting)a. Clarify/conceptualize the multiple roles and responsibilities of otherprofessions, organizations, entities, and socio-political environmentsb. Develop strategies to work with other organizations/systemsAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSUREB- 2
Work Context1. Determine whether practice setting policies, procedures, and materials areconsistent with social work ethics2. Educate supervisee in financial practices (on issues such as):a. Insurance reimbursementb. Fee setting and collectionc. Financial record keeping3. Identify impaired professionals and take appropriate action4. Monitor use of technology with supervisee (online or telephone supervision; fax; email)5. Educate supervisees regarding socio-cultural sensitivity6. Assess cultural environment of the practice setting7. Help supervisees develop strategies to increase wellness, including managing stressEvaluation1. Assess supervisee’s:a. learning goalsb. level of professional development and experiencec. level of social work knowledged. job context (the agency mission, the job description, job history, role withinthe agency)e. strengths and challengesf. learning style2. Monitor supervisee’s documentation (case plans, treatment plans) for quality, clarity,completeness, content.3. Perform formative and summative evaluation.4. Address inappropriate behaviors and take corrective actions.5. Evaluate supervisee and provide recommendations, as appropriate:a. to the superviseeb. to the agency or practice settingc. to the regulatory boardd. as required by lawAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSUREB- 3
Life-long Learning and Professional Responsibility1. Promote continuing education specific to the practice setting2. Encourage and model:a. self-awarenessb. professional developmentc. professional contributionsd. professional engagemente. professional consultation3. Remain current in knowledge base of changing professional practice, laws, andregulationsAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSUREB- 4
Appendix CKSAs Required to Supervise for Social Work LicensureAssumption: Knowledge translates to the ability to apply the knowledge in thesupervision process1. Knowledge of theoretical models of supervision2. Knowledge of theories of human development and behavior3. Ability to establish and articulate measurable outcomes for learning andperformance of supervisees4. Knowledge of the stages of professional and career development5. Knowledge of adult learning theories and research6. Ability to identify learning needs for supervisees7. Ability to identify learning objectives for supervisees8. Knowledge of methods for performance appraisal and evaluation9. Knowledge of techniques to be used in supervision10. Knowledge of group processes and dynamics11. Knowledge of accepted social work practices12. Knowledge of practice theory on which to build assessments and interventions13. Knowledge of the biopsychosocial perspective14. Knowledge of the laws and regulations pertinent to supervision and practice15. Knowledge of the responsibilities and liabilities related to supervision16. Knowledge of evaluation techniques and processes17. Knowledge of social work ethics18. Ability to make ethical decisions19. Ability to use insight and emotional intelligence20. Knowledge of communication skills (written, verbal, nonverbal)21. Knowledge of relationship building skills22. Knowledge of conflict resolution skills23. Knowledge of practice safety issues24. Knowledge of business practices (e.g., funding and financial issues) as applied to thepractice settingAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSUREC-1
25. Knowledge of confidentiality requirements26. Knowledge of risk management27. Knowledge of record keeping and documentation28. Knowledge of standards of culturally competent practice and diversity29. Knowledge of the job duties of supervisee(s)30. Knowledge of the agency’s mission31. Knowledge of supervisory functions (e.g.): Administrative Educational Supportive Evaluation Organizational culture32. Knowledge of the theories of power, influence, and authority33. Ability to teach the respectful and effective use of power and authority34. Knowledge of the theoretical underpinnings of transference, counter-transference,boundaries, dual relationships, and parallel process35. Ability to use critical thinking skills36. Knowledge of the roles and responsibilities of allied professions37. Knowledge of interactional skills: collaboration, negotiation, consultation, mediation,networking38. Knowledge of policy-making, policy analysis, and advocacy39. Knowledge of how to develop/access resources40. Knowledge of differences and the effects of oppression, discrimination, andprejudice41. Knowledge of the ethical, innovative, and effective use of informational andcommunication technologies42. Knowledge of the stages of stress, burnout, and compassion fatigue43. Knowledge of professional social work identity, culture, and communityAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSUREC-2
Appendix DCompetencies and their Related KSAsDOMAIN: Supervisory relationship and processCompetency 1.Conduct self-assessment (supervisor)a. Assess supervisory stylei. Interactionalii. Learningiii. Communicationiv. Workingb. Assess strengths/limits (personal/professional)c. Assess awareness of professional knowledge and competenciesd. Assess values and attitudes#KSAs Needed1Knowledge of theoretical models of supervision2Knowledge of theories of human development and behavior5Knowledge of adult learning theories and research15Knowledge of the responsibilities and liabilities related to supervision19Ability to use insight and emotional intelligence28Knowledge of standards of culturally competent practice and diversityCompetency 2.Establish the supervisory relationshipa. Develop contracti. Clarify purpose of supervisionii. Clarify goals of supervisioniii. Clarify respective roles, duties, responsibilitiesiv. Define structure/method of supervisionv. Determine authority and accountability (for issues such asconfidentiality, record keeping, timeliness)vi. Specify terms of shared supervision (if necessary)vii. Establish fee structureviii. Establish length, frequency and duration of supervisionix. Determine modality of supervision (face-to-face, individual, group,technology-assisted)x. Maintain documentation for purposes of1. Credentialing and/or licensing2. Tracking supervision processxi. Specify methods of evaluationxii. Establish terms of terminationb. Develop an environment that enhances communication and reflects agrowing working alliance between supervisor and superviseec. Establish and maintain boundariesd. Monitor and address the impact of relational dynamicse. Address parallel processf. Address thoughts, feelings and behaviorAN ANALYSIS OF SUPERVISION FOR SOCIAL WORK LICENSURED-1
#3781420212224252729303132333441g. Manage conflict/disagreementh. Manage power and authorityi. Provide constructive feedbacki. Validate effective performanceii. Offer support in areas that need improvementj. Solicit and respond appropriately to feedbackk. Manage termination processKSAs NeededAbility to establish and articulate measurable outcomes for learning and performance ofsuperviseesAbility to identify learning objectives for superviseesKnowledge of methods for performance appraisal and evaluationKnowledge of the laws and regulations pertinent to supervision and practiceKnowledge of communication skills (written, verbal, nonverbal)Knowledge of relationship building skillsKnowledge of conflict resolution skillsKnowledge of business practices (e.g., funding and financial issues) as applied to thepractice settingKnowledge of confidentiality requirementsKnowledge of record keeping and documentationKnowledge of the job duties of supervisee(s)Knowledge of the agency’s missionKnowledge of supervisory functions, e.g. administrative, educational, supportive,evaluative and organizational cultureKnowledge of the theories of power, influence, and authorityAbility to teach the respectful and effective
KSA lists for all ASWB examination levels Compilation of data from the ASWB jurisdiction comparison study regarding social work supervision for licensure in current regulation ASWB Model Social Work Practice Act Forms and regulations from various jurisdictions (e.g., North Car
