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Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), Volume 6, Issue 2, June 2016A Model for Effective Online Instructional DesignLi-Ling ChenCalifornia State University at East Bay, USAAbstractWith the ever-increasing popularity of onlineinstruction in education or e-learning in corporatetraining, there is a strong need for developing aneffective instructional design model to facilitate thedevelopment and delivery of online learningenvironments. A poor-designed online course oftenconfuses online students, loses their focus, andmakes them feel frustrated. Online students will notknow where to start, what to do, when tocommunicate, and how to learn if an online course isnot well-designed. Thus, developing a pedagogicallyeffective instructional design model is essential nowmore than ever as more and more learning moves tovirtual classrooms.effectively, to assist and support learners, and topromote engaging, meaningful, and active learning.Therefore, it is essential now more than ever as moreand more learning shifts to online.The purpose of this paper is to address principlesof effective online instructional design and then topropose a stand-alone online ID model, particularlyrelevant for online course development with theconsideration of learning theories and pedagogicalphilosophy. The proposed ISD model in this paperwill effectively guide an online instructor andeducator to better design a quality online coursewhich promotes and enhances online students’ focuson active and engaging learning.1. Introduction2. Literature reviewIn the past decade, online instruction continues togrow rapidly. With the popularity of onlineinstruction in education, there is a strong need for apedagogically effective instructional design modelfor online education to facilitate the development anddelivery of engaging online learning environments.A poorly designed online course often makesstudents get lost, loses their interests, and feelsdistressed. If an online course is not well-designed,students will not know where to start, what to do,when to communicate, and how to learn. The statuswill become even worse if a student is still learninghow to operate the technology aspects of an onlinecourse. With unclear instruction, ambiguousorganization, and inefficient applications, the focusof online learners will be on technology, not onlearning which creates more obstacles for onlinelearners.Instructional design (ID) also called instructionalsystematic design (ISD) is “the practice of creatinginstructional experiences which make the acquisitionof knowledge and skill more efficient, effective, andappealing" [10]. An effective ISD model benefitsboth instructors and learners. An instructional designserves as a framework and also a tool that providesguidance for the structure and organization of acourse design. With systematic guidance, it helps tolead learners to focus on a topic quickly and toremove distractions, yet it still allows learners to takecontrol of their learning. It also helps instructors toorganize contents, to sequence instructionThe review of literature will start from reviewingthe two most frequently mentioned traditional ISDmodels, ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development,Implementation, and Evaluation) and Dick, Carey,and Carey’s model. Then, the literature review willexamine the current five ISD models or standardsthat are mostly cited and applied for designing anddeveloping an online or a hybrid class.Copyright 2016, Infonomics Society2.1 Traditional ISD modelsInstructional design models have some history ineducation and thus many instructional design modelsexist yet few are specific to course design for onlineteaching and learning. The two most frequently citedtraditional ID models are the ADDIE model [6] andDick, Carey, and Carey’s model [3]. The ADDIEmodel offers five universal course design principles:Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation,and Evaluation (ADDIE).Like all ID models, both pros and cons have beenclaimed with ADDIE. Its advantages include:providing structured guidance for design, serving asa valuable checklist to ensure a solid course design,and including a great focus on implementation andevaluation. The disadvantages of ADDIE includethat the analysis step is not being broad enough inthe design process; the model is too linear and notflexible; and it does not encourage inspiration [9].Sequentially similar to the ADDIE model, Dick,Carey, and Carey’s ISD model is more specific andrigid to each instructional step [3]. Their modelfocuses on real-world settings, considers learners’2303
Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), Volume 6, Issue 2, June 2016needs, assesses learners’ prior knowledge levels, andintegrates learning and performance context into thedesign. The model is well accepted and respected inhigher education and business settings because it iswell-researched and it relies heavily on theoreticalprinciples of learning.Although Dick, Carey, and Carey claim that theirISD model is also applicable to online instructionaldesign, many educators criticize that their model is“rigid, cumbersome, driven by predeterminedobjectives,thusincompatible withlearnerdetermined objectives. The model is also instructorfocused, assumes the learner is a consumer ofcontent and materials, and not active in the learningprocess” [7].Apparently, both ADDIE and Dick, Carey, andCarey’s models provide a great guidance fordesigning instruction. At the same time, critics ofthe models also indicate that they are too linear andinflexible. Their designing process is also driven bypredetermined instructional objectives which arecontradictory to learner-centered learning withlearner-determined objectives.2.2 Online instructional design modelsAlthough distance education has been existing fora long time, the history of online instruction or elearning has just started in early 1990’s. Thus, thereare few online instructional design models, theories,and standards exist. Literature review reveals thatthere are five instructional design models, theories,and standards relevant to online instruction or elearning design. They are: (1) Alonso, Lopez,Manrique, and Vines’ E-Learning instructionalmodel, (2) the Instructional Design Model for OnlineLearning (IDOL), (3) Roblyer’s online and blendedlearning design theory, (4) the online instructionrubric by Quality Online Learning and Teaching(QOLT), and (5) Quality Matters (QM) PublisherRubric. Each of the model or rubric will bedescribed and reviewed below.In 2005, Alonso, Lopez, Manrique, and Vinesproposed a web-based e-learning education modelwith a blended learning approach [1]. They describetheir model is “a psychopedagogical instructionalmodel based on content structure, the latest researchinto information processing psychology and socialcontructivism, and define a blended approach to thelearning process” (p. 217). They claimed that thepurpose of their model is “for learners to be engagedby the e-learning contents to the extent that they getto understand things that they did not comprehendbefore. This will make them ready to practice andtake action to perform new activities.” (p. 222).In their model, there are seven main steps:Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation,Execution, Evaluation, and Review (See Figure 1.).Apparently, their model was built upon ADDIECopyright 2016, Infonomics Societymodel with the addition of two phases, Executionand Review.Figure 1. Alonso, Lopez, Manrique, and Vines’ elearning instructional model with a blended learningapproachThis IDOL model, designed and proposed bySiragusa, Dixon, and Dixon [12], gears towardonline course design in higher education with threeproposed main steps: analysis, strategy, andevaluation. One can tell that the model derives fromthe two above-mentioned traditional instructionaldesign models, ADDIE and Dick, Carey and Carey’smodel. It presents 24 pedagogical considerationswhen designing an online learning. The maindrawback of the model for online design is that it isonly recommended for use alongside with other IDmodels and is inefficient to use alone for designingan online course.Roblyer’s instructional design model wasproposed in his book, entitled “Introduction toSystematic Instructional Design for Traditional,Online, and Blended Environments” published in2015 [10]. His theory also draws from ADDIE andDick, Carey, and Carey’s model. Besides thetraditional instructional design process, he proposeshow to organize traditional, online, and blendedlearning environments. Strictly speaking, it is not anonline instructional design model but justsuggestions and considerations for onlineinstructional design.The rubric for online instruction by QOLT wasfirst released in 2010 [11]. It is a state-wide programdeveloped by the California State University System.It provides a framework for online course design anddelivery and it also serves as a means for supportingin developing online instruction. According to QOLT[11], the rubric can be used for designing onlinelearning in two ways: “1. as a course "selfevaluation" tool - advising instructors how to revisean existing course to the Rubric for Online2304
Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), Volume 6, Issue 2, June 2016Instruction. 2. As a way to design a new course forthe online environment, following the rubric as aroad map.” Although the rubric provides a greatchecklist to design online courses, it overlooks theactual implementation and evaluation of an onlineinstruction.Quality Matters Publisher Rubric [8] was createdby Quality Matters (QM), a non-profit organizationdedicated to assure the quality of online and blendedinstruction. There are two sets of rubric: one forhigher education and the other one for K-12education. The rubric was created to address the needof design standards for higher education and K-12educational settings to guide the design of online andblended instruction. The QM rubric is also a greatguide for designing online courses. Like QOLTrubric, the actual delivery, implementation, andassessment of an online instruction are notaddressed.3. A pedagogically effective model foronline instructional designBased on the literature review, we can find thatthere are some basic principles for designing anddeveloping an effective online course. The basicprinciples can be theorized and diagramed as anonline course design model (See Figure 2.). Thereare five main principles or steps in the model:Identify, Choose, Create, Engage, and Evaluate(ICCEE). The unique characteristic in the model isthat all main steps and their associated sub-stepsmajorly follow a sequential order, yet they can be incircular order as well. By following the model, anonline instructor can maximize the efficiency ofdesigning an online course.Figure 2. Online instructional design modelStep 1: Identify. Because the nature of an onlinecourse is very different from a traditional face to facecourse and a hybrid course, identifying a courseformat becomes essential in the initial process whendesigning an online course. Course formats rangefrom totally face-to-face class to blended coursesCopyright 2016, Infonomics Societywith small portion of online components, to highportion of online components, or to an entirely onlineclass. An online instructor needs to identify whichcourse format that he/she would like to adopt forinstruction first. The course format identificationwill help the instructor to better identify instructionalobjectives.After a course format is set, an instructor canmove the step to identify instructional objectives.When identifying instructional objectives for onlinecourses, online instructors should consider questions,such as what are the terminal objectives for theonline or blended course? Are the terminal objectivesmandated by the institution that the online coursewill be offered? Is there any flexibility that theinstructor can create his/her terminal objectives forthe learners?When terminal objectives or course objectives areset, instructors should identify their learners’ needsand characteristics. With the understanding of theneeds and characteristics of the learners, onlineinstructors can better identify technologies tomaximize their students’ learning. For example,instructors can better choose a technology tool toincorporate into their online course design if theyknow their student’s prior experience of technologyuse. Another example is an online instructor canchose a delivery system that complies with Section508 if there are students with disabilities in his/heronline class.Then, online instructors have to identify andanalyze the learning context.Different fromtraditional teaching which classrooms or computerlabs are the main learning contexts, online learningcontext for online instruction focuses on web-basedonline learning environments. It is very essential foronline instructors to provide a comfortable, safe, andcollegial online learning environment for their onlinelearners.After appropriate technologies have beenidentified to use for delivering an online course, anonline instructor can now move to identifyappropriate pedagogical strategies. In this stage,online instructors can ask themselves what learningand teaching approaches that he/she would like toapply, behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism,project-based learning, or student-centered learning?Step 2: Choose. After identifying appropriatenecessary formats and elements for an onlineinstruction, then an online instructor can begin tochoose. At this stage, online instructors choosecontent organization layout which is a way toorganize their online course contents and materials,linear or nonlinear. Choosing content organizationformat is essential in this step as it influencesstudents’ first impression of the online courses aswell as their access to and navigation of the coursecontents. Poorly organized online course contents2305
Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), Volume 6, Issue 2, June 2016will confuse its learners, and make them losepatience to navigate around.After content organization layout has beenchosen, online instructors need to choose effectivetechnology tools to facilitate various onlineactivities. For example, online discussion is one ofthe major activities for online learning, onlineinstructors need to choose effective technology toolsto facilitate online interaction and communication. Auser friendly online discussion tool will easestudents’ anxiety as well as promote a more dynamiconline discussion. For content presentation, onlineinstructors can choose technology that is familiar tostudents or easy to use to present information tostudents.In this planning stage, online instructors willhave to choose appropriate resources to help theirlearners learn or enhance their learning. Theresources can include both curriculum relatedresources, technical support resources, anduniversity-based mentoring supporting resources.Step 3: Create. The third step is to create or todevelop. At this step, online instructors start buildingand creating intuitive course path or flow, createinstructional methods and materials for contentpresentation, assignment, and assessment, createinteractive communication methods, and createsupporting materials for students.To build and create intuitive course path or flow,online instructors can work with their institutionallydesignated instructional designer to sketch or storyboard about the course site architecture in a learningmanagement system. At this stage, online instructorshave to decide whether they would like to displaytheir course contents in a linear or hierarchical way.They also have to decide how to cluster their coursecontents in order to enhance their students’ learning.After course site architecture has been decided,online instructors can move to create and developmaterials for instructional content presentation,assignments, and assessment. Creating anddeveloping instructional materials require a logicalplan and organization. For course contents oratively with professional staff in facultysupport offices to make sure audio, video, andgraphics all work smoothly and comply withaccessibility regulation. Assignment submission andassessment feedback also need to create logically andtransparently so that online students can track theirprogress for improvement.When instructional materials, assignments, andassessment methods have all been in place, onlineinstructors have to focus on how to create andfacilitate interactive communication methods. Theestablishment of an interactive communication orbuilding a robust online learning community is oneof the major keys in determining the success of anonline instruction. In this stage, applying a socialCopyright 2016, Infonomics Societymedia technology usually will help in facilitatingdynamic communication.Step 4: Engage. According to a research report,online learning tends to have a high drop-out rate [2],[4], how to retain and engage online learnersbecomes essential. According to Willging andJohnson [13], the factors which cause online studentsto drop out from online courses include isolation,disconnectedness, and technological problems.Therefore, in the implementation stage for an onlinecourse, online instructors should focus on the processof how to carry out the online learning. Casimiro [2]proposed five conditions that could have supportedthe engagement of online student: nature ofdiscussion questions, the mitigating factors for thelevel of student response, learning community,student characteristics, and teacher facilitation. Hefurthermore claims that “of these five, the nature ofdiscussion questions, quality of student response, andlearning community appeared to be the best topromote cognitive engagement” (P. 441). Accordingto the author’s conclusion, online instructors canengage students from three perspectives: academic,social, and emotion. To engage learnersacademically in an online class, online instructorscould provide prompt feedback for students’performance in their assignments and projects aswell as their questions regarding technologicalissues. Providing immediate feedback for students’questions will ease out student’s worry and keepstudents stay in their online class. Offering promptand just-in-time feedback for students’ assignmentsand projects allows learners to track their progressand keep on task.Student’s feeling of isolation in an online class isanother influential drop-out factor and it can also bedetrimental for student’s learning. Building apositive online learning community is the key tosolve the problem. Online instructors can applyvarious technology tools to facilitate and promote theestablishment of online learning environment. Thetools include: traditional text-based discussionboards, forums, multimedia-based discussion boards,such as VoiceThread, wiki, or course textingfunctions, such as Remind, to establish an onlinelearning community. To make sure the learningcommunity is comfortable, safe, and positive, onlineinstructors should set online netiquette guidelines fortheir learners before the class starts.Whileimplementing or delivering an online class, onlineinstructors should facilitate and monitor their onlinediscourse in all discussion platforms constantly.To engage online learners emotionally, onlineinstructors can apply some instructional strategies toincrease student’s confidence level. When studentsfeel confidence in an online class, they will have abetter chance to succeed. Strategies to increasestudent’s confidence in an online class include:providing extra credit, offering visual or musical aid,2306
Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), Volume 6, Issue 2, June 2016and so on. “A picture is more than 1000 words.”Providing visual or musical aid can help students,especially for the second language learners, tocomprehend the new materials easier. This includesassessments that require online learners todemonstrate mastery.Step 5: Evaluate. The final step in this model isevaluation. Student assessment should be holistic andformative. Online instructors can evaluate students’performance with multiple strategies, such tion posts, etc. Students’ performance inan online class should also be evaluatedprogressively and periodically. Online instructorsshould also evaluate the effectiveness of theirinstructional methods and materials by checking withtheir online students either via survey, questionnaire,interview, online observations, or others.4. DiscussionThere are several advantages of applying the fiveprinciples proposed in this model for online coursedesign. First, the model is built upon withconsiderations from traditional ID models as well ascurrently existing online ID models. Furthermore,both pedagogical approaches and learning theoriesare also taken into account.Second, it is well-designed by outliningconceptual framework for online instruction. Theresearcher has received state wide recognitions andawards for her outstanding online course design andteaching and also has accessed to numerousexemplary online courses. To develop the model, sheand her research team had listed essential elementsof the theoretical framework for online instructionbased on the examination of various online courses.They reviewed online courses, made tables andcharts to compare ID theories and elements that wereused for the online course design.Third, the model is flexible. Online instructorscan tailor the instructional sub-steps in the model tomeet their own specific online teaching needs. Inaddition, online instructors can go back to previoussteps to revise their course design and contents ifthey deem a need.Fourth, the model is learner-centered. Accordingto the model, online instructors have to identify theirlearner’s needs, prior knowledge, characteristics, andlearning context in order to provide appropriateinstruction that matches their students’ learningneeds. The model considers the importance ofengaging learners from academically, socially, andemotionally which has not been taken into account inany of the existing five ISD models related to onlineinstruction.The proposed ICCEE (Identify, Choose, Create,Engage, and Evaluate) model is still in its infancy.Although the researcher has adopted, tested out, andCopyright 2016, Infonomics Societyproved the effectiveness of the model in her onlineinstruction, it is suggested that more empiricalresearches can be done.5. ConclusionThe proposed ICCEE model can provide onlineeducators or instructors an effective guidance andchecklist when designing online course materials. Aproper implementation of the model can ivation, and focus on learning. The five basicprinciples are in a both linear and circular process.That is, online instructors can return back to anyprevious step to modify their instructional designwhile they develop or deliver online instruction. Theend goal of the online instructional design model isto assist online instructors to better design onlinecourses or lessons, to facilitate online studentsfocusing on their learning, and to promote activeteaching and learning.6. References[1] Alonso, F., Lopez, G., Manrique, D., & Vines, J. M.,(2005). An instructional model for web-based e-learningeducation with a blended learning process approach,British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(2), 217235. uur/2005 modelforwebbasedelearning.pd (April 28,2016)[2] Casimiro, L. T., (2016). Cognitive engagement inonline intercultural interactions: Beyond analytics,International Journal of Information and EducationTechnology, 6(6), 441-447.[3] Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O., (2014). Thesystematic design of instruction. 8th Ed. New Jersey:Pearson Education, Inc.[4] Haynie, D., Experts debate graduation rates for onlinestudents. US News: Education, -for-online-students (Jan. 30,2015).[5] Merrill, M. D., Drake, L., Lacy, M. J., & Pratt, J.,(1996). Reclaiming instructional design. EducationalTechnology, 36(5), 5–7.[6] Molenda, M., (2003). In search of the elusive ADDIEmodel. Performance Improvement, 42(5), 34-37.[7] Morrison, D., (2013). “Start here”: Instructional designmodels for online courses. Online Learning com/tag/onlinepedagogy-2/page/5/ (April 25, 2016)[8] Quality Matters (2015). QM publisher rubric:https://www.qualitymatters.org/ (May 1, 2016)2307
Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), Volume 6, Issue 2, June 2016[9] Quinn, C., (2010). The great ADDIE debate.http://blog.learnlets.com/?p 1489. (Access date: May 5,2016).[10] Roblyer, M. D., (2015). Introduction to systematicinstructional design for traditional, online, and blendedenvironments. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.[11] Rubric for Online Instruction (2010). QOLT (QualityOnline Teaching and Learning). ess date: May 5, 2016)[12] Siragusa, L., Dixon, K. C., & Dixon, R., (2007).Designing quality e-learning environments in highereducation. /procs/siragusa.pdf (Access date: May 1, 2016)[13] Willging, P. A. & Johnson, S. A., (2004). Factors thatinfluence students’ decision to drop out of online courses.Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 8(4), 105118.Copyright 2016, Infonomics Society2308
learning design theory, (4) the online instruction rubric by Quality Online Learning and Teaching (QOLT), and (5) Quality Matters (QM) Publisher Rubric. Each of the model or rubric will be described and reviewed below. In 2005, Alonso, Lopez, Manrique, and Vines proposed a web
