Handbook Of Sports Medicine And Science Sport Psychology

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Handbook of Sports Medicine and ScienceSport Psychology

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Handbook of SportsMedicine and ScienceSport PsychologyEDITED BYBritton W. Brewer PhDDepartment of PsychologySpringfield CollegeSpringfield, MAUSAA John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

This edition first published 2009, 2009 by International Olympic CommitteePublished by Blackwell PublishingBlackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing programhas been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.Registered office: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UKEditorial offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UKThe Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USAFor details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how toapply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website atwww.wiley.com/wiley-blackwellThe right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordancewith the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except aspermitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print maynot be available in electronic books.Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brandnames and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registeredtrademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentionedin this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to thesubject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in renderingprofessional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competentprofessional should be sought.The contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussiononly and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting a specific method,diagnosis, or treatment by physicians for any particular patient. The publisher and the author make norepresentations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work andspecifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of fitness for aparticular purpose. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmentalregulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of medicines, equipment, and devices,the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions foreach medicine, equipment, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indicationof usage and for added warnings and precautions. Readers should consult with a specialist where appropriate.The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source offurther information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information theorganization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be awarethat Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work waswritten and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements forthis work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataSport psychology / edited by Britton W. Brewer.p. cm.—(Handbook of sports medicine and science)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4051-7363-6 (alk. paper)1. Sports—Psychological aspects—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Brewer, Britton W. II. IOC Medical Commmission.Sub-Commission on Publications in the Sport Sciences. III. Series.[DNLM: 1. Sports—psychology. 2. Adaptation, Psychological. 3. Stress, Psychological—psychology. QT 260 S7516 2009]GV706.4.S677 2009796.01—dc222008039505ISBN: 978-1-4051-7363-6A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.Set in 8.75/12 pt ITC Stone Serif Medium by Charon Tec Ltd (A Macmillan Company), Chennai, India(www.macmillansolutions.com)Printed and bound in Malaysia by KHL Printing Co Sdn Bhd.1—2009

ContentsList of contributors, viForeword, viiPreface, viii7Enhancing team effectiveness, 64Albert V. Carron, Shauna M. Burke andKim M. Shapcott1Introduction, 1Britton W. Brewer8Injury prevention and rehabilitation, 75Britton W. Brewer2Motivation, 7Robert S. Weinberg9Clinical issues, 87Britton W. Brewer3 Attention, concentration and thoughtmanagement, 18Aidan P. Moran4 Management of competitive stressin elite sport, 30Sheldon Hanton, Owen Thomasand Stephen D. Mellalieu56Confidence in sport, 43Robin S. Vealey10Child and adolescent developmentand sport participation, 97Diane M. Wiese-Bjornstal,Nicole M. LaVoi and Jens Omli11Sport career termination, 113Albert J. Petitpas12 Sport psychology in practice, 121Mark B. AndersenIndex, 133Mental preparation for training andcompetition, 53Daniel Gould, M. Ryan Flett and Eric Beanv

List of contributorsMark B. Andersen, Ph.D.Stephen D. MellalieuSchool of Human Movement, Recreation, andPerformance and the Centre for Ageing, Rehabilitation,Exercise, and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne,AustraliaDepartment of Sports Science, Swansea University,Swansea, United KingdomEric Bean, M.S.School of Psychology, University College, Dublin,National University of Ireland, IrelandDepartment of Kinesiology, Institute for the Study ofYouth Sports, Michigan State University, East Lansing,MI, USABritton W. Brewer, Ph.D.Department of Psychology, Springfield College,Springfield, MA, USAShauna M. Burke, Ph.D.Bachelor of Health Sciences Program, University ofWestern Ontario, London, Ontario, CanadaAidan P. Moran, Ph.D.Jens Omli, Ph.D.Tucker Center for Research on Girls & Women inSport, School of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota,Minneapolis, MN, USAAlbert J. Petitpas, Ed.D.Department of Psychology, Springfield College,Springfield, MA, USAAlbert V. Carron, Ph.D.Kim M. ShapcottSchool of Kinesiology, University of Western Ontario,London, Ontario, CanadaSchool of Kinesiology, University of Western Ontario,London, Ontario, CanadaM. Ryan Flett, M.Sci.Department of Kinesiology, Institute for the Study ofYouth Sports, Michigan State University, East Lansing,MI, USAOwen Thomas, Ph.D.Cardiff School of Sport, University of Wales Institute,Cardiff, United KingdomDaniel Gould, Ph.D.Robin S. Vealey, Ph.D.Department of Kinesiology, Institute for the Study ofYouth Sports, Michigan State University, East Lansing,MI, USADepartment of Kinesiology and Health, MiamiUniversity, Oxford, OH, USASheldon Hanton, Ph.D.Cardiff School of Sport, University of Wales Institute,Cardiff, United KingdomRobert S. Weinberg, Ph.D.Department of Kinesiology and Health, MiamiUniversity, Oxford, OH, USANicole M. LaVoi, Ph.D.Diane M. Wiese-Bjornstal, Ph.D.Tucker Center for Research on Girls & Women inSport, School of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota,Minneapolis, MN, USATucker Center for Research on Girls & Women inSport, School of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota,Minneapolis, MN, USAvi

ForewordThe previous volumes of the Handbooks of SportsMedicine and Science have dealt in comprehensivefashion with Olympic sports in terms of the physical,biomechanical, physiological, and clinical aspectsof conditioning and competition. A wide variety oftopics have been included as related to the physiological requirements of the various sports and events,conditioning for competition, sports nutrition, aswell as injury prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation. Throughout each volume, there has been frequent mention of the involvement of psychology,but no in-depth discussions have been included.As it was considered to be of great importance topresent a comprehensive review of the area of sportpsychology in the Handbook series, the MedicalCommission embarked on a project to producethis volume, a landmark publication in the areas ofsports medicine and the sports sciences. The Editorand the Contributing Authors for this Handbookare to be congratulated on their comprehensiveexamination of all aspects of the psychologicalaspects of performance in Olympic sports.We welcome the Handbook on Sport Psychologyto the series of Handbooks of Sports Medicine andScience. Prof. Britton C. Brewer and the contributors have produced a work of excellence that willserve as a valued reference by medical doctors,allied health personnel, coaches, and athletes formany years to come.vii

PrefaceSport history is replete with examples of athletes and teams that appear to have had a knackfor coming through when the pressure is on andconquering the competition despite the obstacles and distractions they encountered in theirquest for excellence. Athletes and teams of thissort are often described as having a “mental edge”over the opposition. There are also vivid cases inwhich unheralded athletes and teams have upsettheir more highly touted opponents to emerge triumphant in major competitions. Although someunexpected successes can be attributed to physicalfactors, environmental influences, and just plainbad luck on the part of the vanquished athletesand teams, other instances can be credited to theinfluence of psychological factors. It is these psychological influences on sport performance thatconstitute the primary focus of this handbook.Sport performance has been the subject of psychological inquiry for more than a century, anda concise summary of what is known about theeffects of motivation, cognition, stress, confidence,mental preparation, and team dynamics on performance is presented in the current volume. Empiricallyvalidated psychological interventions designedto enhance sport performance are identified andillustrated in case study material at the end ofeach chapter. Reflecting the breadth of contemporary sport psychology, a substantial portion of theviiihandbook is devoted to psychological research andpractice in areas not explicitly pertaining to performance, such as injury, psychopathology, childand adolescent development, and sport career termination. Exploration of such issues underscoresthe emphasis of the discipline on the well-being ofathletes both on and off the field of play.Completing a project of the magnitude of thishandbook would not have been possible without the stellar contributions of many people.The International Olympic Committee MedicalCommission supported the project and entrustedme with the responsibility of bringing it to fruition.Howard Knuttgen, Ph.D. nurtured the handbookfrom its inception and provided sage guidanceand vital assistance throughout the publicationprocess. Developmental editors Adam Gilbert,Julie Elliott, Victoria Pittman, and, especially,Cathryn Gates of Wiley-Blackwell kept the projecton task and, along with project manager GeethaWilliams, helped turn the manuscript into the polished product held by readers. The distinguishedand dedicated corps of chapter authors fromaround the world sacrificed many hours to sharetheir expertise. To these individuals and to others closely involved in producing the handbook, Iextend my heartfelt appreciation and gratitude.Britton W. Brewer, 2008

Chapter 1IntroductionBritton W. BrewerDepartment of Psychology, Springfield College, Springfield, MA, USASport is generally considered a primarily physical endeavor, involving the marshaling of bodily resources to complete a variety of specialized,demanding physical tasks. Undeniably, physicalattributes such as speed, strength, stamina, fitness,coordination, agility, flexibility, and resilience arerichly rewarded in competitive sport. Recognizingthe abundant physical component of sport performance, scientists have investigated biomechanical, physiological, nutritional, metabolic,epidemiological, biochemical, pharmacological, andmedical aspects of sport. Applied practitioners inexercise physiology, physiotherapy, sport biomechanics, sports medicine, sports nutrition, strengthand conditioning, and other disciplines have translated research findings into interventions designedto enhance the physical performance capabilitiesof the athletes.Despite the pronounced emphasis on physicalmatters in the sport sciences, it is widely acceptedthat sport performance is influenced not only byphysical attributes, but also by psychological factors. Some athletes seem to have a mental edgeover other athletes with comparable physical characteristics and training backgrounds. Some athletesperform better under pressure, implement strategies more effectively, tolerate discomfort better,concentrate more intensely, identify more creative solutions to challenging sport situations, pushSport Psychology. 1st edition. Edited by Britton Brewer.Published 2009 by Blackwell Publishing.ISBN 978-1-4051-7363-6.themselves harder, learn new skills more quickly,or prepare themselves for competition better thantheir physically similar peers. Issues associatedwith the mental advantage gained by these athletesfall squarely within the domain of sport psychology. If psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, then sport psychology isthe scientific study of behavior and mental processes in the context of sport. Paralleling the rise ofother sport sciences, a large research literature hasaccumulated to inform the practice of coaches andsport psychology specialists. The purpose of thischapter is to present an introduction to sport psychology. Following a brief summary of the historical underpinnings of the field, the current statusof sport psychology is reviewed.Historical underpinningsThe use of psychological methods to calm the mind,relax the body, or otherwise alter mental and physical states of being dates back millennia, particularly in several Eastern traditions. The use of suchmethods for the enhancement of sport performance is, however, a more recent phenomenon.Shortly after the emergence of psychology as ascience in the late nineteenth century, researchersturned their attention to psychological influenceson sport behavior. Among the early studies in theannals of psychology is Triplett’s famous experimenton the effects of the presence of a fellow competitoron bicycling performance. Recognizing the potential1

2Chapter 1for application of psychological principles to therealm of sport performance, the Chicago Cubsbaseball team hired Coleman Griffith, a scholar atthe University of Illinois, as a sport psychologist inthe 1920s. Several decades later, the Soviet Unionemployed sport psychologists as assistant coacheson national teams.Despite these early scientific and applied developments, it was not until the 1960s and 1970sthat sport psychology crystallized as a discipline andforged a distinct identity. Sport psychology textbooks were published and professional organizations such as the International Society of SportPsychology, the North American Society for thePsychology of Sport and Physical Activity, and theFédération Européenne de Psychologie des Sportset des Activité Corporelles were founded in the1960s. Scholarly journals devoted specifically tosport psychology, such as the International Journalof Sport Psychology, the Journal of Sport Behavior,and the Journal of Sport Psychology (later the Journalof Sport and Exercise Psychology), appeared in the1970s. The field expanded further in the 1980s and1990s as specialized academic training programs insport psychology mushroomed around the worldand criteria for certification as a sport psychology practitioner were established in Australia, theUnited Kingdom, and the United States.Current statusSport psychology has matured to the point thatcompetitive athletes are generally aware of the existence of sport psychologists, although they may notfully know what sport psychologists do and howthey do it. Sport psychologists work with a varietyof client types on a variety of issues using a varietyof methods. Despite this variety, some trends haveemerged in the work of sport psychologists.Sport psychology clientsTypically, athletes who consult sport psychologistsare competitive, participating at the elite, professional, or university level. Young athletes, mastersathletes, and adult recreational athletes may alsoenlist the services of a sport psychologist. It is common for sport psychologists to consult with coaches,offering information, and working collaboratively toaddress the psychological needs of athletes on theteam. Less frequently, sport psychologists may consult with sport administrators and sports medicineprofessionals to deal with issues of a psychologicalnature at the organizational or individual level.Sport psychology issuesMany of the issues for which sport psychologists areconsulted are performance-related. Issues pertaining to motivation, focus/concentration, thoughtpatterns, arousal control, confidence, and mentalpreparation are common performance-related reasons for seeking the services of a sport psychologist.Because motivation is central to so many aspects ofsport involvement—from choosing to participate inthe first place and dedicating oneself to extensivetraining regimens to persisting despite obstaclesand exerting effort in the face of discomfort—it isnot surprising that many people associate sport psychology primarily with motivation. Sport psychologists work with individual athletes to help themidentify appropriate sources and achieve desiredlevels of motivation for practice and competition.Coaches and administrators may enlist the services of sport psychologists to assist in establishing asport environment with a motivational climate thatis conducive to optimal team functioning.In most sports, performance can be adverselyaffected when the attention of athletes is not focusedappropriately on the sport task. Athletes who havetrouble concentrating or who are distracted byintrusive thoughts are likely to encounter performance difficulties. Sport psychologists can assist athletes in directing their attention to cues that canfacilitate enhanced performance.Sport performance is often impaired when athletes experience levels of arousal or anxiety thatare incongruent with their personal preferences orthe demands of the sport in which they participate.For example, performance on tasks such as shooting a rifle or attempting a free throw in basketballcan be hampered by excessive levels of anxietyand the psychological as well as physiologicaleffects that they have on athletes. Similarly, the

Introduction 3performance of athletes who are not sufficientlyenergized before or during competition may alsosuffer. In these circumstances, sport psychologistswork with athletes helping them to cope with thestressful situations they inevitably encounter incompetitive sport and to identify and achieve levels of arousal that are optimal for their sport tasks.One of the factors that commonly accompaniesand indeed may precipitate anxiety in athletes is alack of confidence. When athletes doubt themselvesor believe themselves incapable of completing various sport tasks, their performance may suffer andtheir confidence may spiral further downward.Sport psychologists can intervene to help bolsterthe confidence of athletes and set the stage forenhanced performance.Athletes spend hundreds of hours preparing themselves physically for competition

School of Human Movement, Recreation, and Performance and the Centre for Ageing, Rehabilitation, Exercise, and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, . Britton W. Brewer Department of Psychology, Springfi eld College, Springfi eld,