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2018 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.orgSome rights reserved1 2 3 4 20 19 18 17This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, andconclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors,or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work.The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment onthe part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.Nothing herein shall constitute or be considered to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities ofThe World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved.Rights and PermissionsThis work is available under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (CC BY 3.0 IGO) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo. Under the Creative Commons Attribution license, you are free to copy, distribute, transmit, and adaptthis work, including for commercial purposes, under the following conditions:Attribution—Please cite the work as follows: World Bank. 2018. World Development Report 2018: Learning to Realize Education’sPromise. Washington, DC: World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-1096-1. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGOTranslations—If you create a translation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution: Thistranslation was not created by The World Bank and should not be considered an official World Bank translation. The World Bank shall not beliable for any content or error in this translation.Adaptations—If you create an adaptation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution:This is an adaptation of an original work by The World Bank. Views and opinions expressed in the adaptation are the sole responsibility ofthe author or authors of the adaptation and are not endorsed by The World Bank.Third-party content—The World Bank does not necessarily own each component of the content contained within the work.The World Bank therefore does not warrant that the use of any third-party-owned individual component or part contained inthe work will not infringe on the rights of those third parties. The risk of claims resulting from such infringement rests solelywith you. If you wish to re-use a component of the work, it is your responsibility to determine whether permission is neededfor that re-use and to obtain permission from the copyright owner. Examples of components can include, but are not limitedto, tables, figures, or images.All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW,Washington, DC 20433, USA; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org.ISSN, ISBN, e-ISBN, and DOI:SoftcoverISSN: 0163-5085ISBN: 978-1-4648-1096-1e-ISBN: 978-1-4648-1098-5DOI: 10.1596/978-1-4648-1096-1HardcoverISSN: 0163-5085ISBN: 978-1-4648-1097-8DOI: 10.1596/978-1-4648-1097-8Cover design: Kurt Niedermeier, Niedermeier Design, Seattle, Washington.Interior design: George Kokkinidis, Design Language, Brooklyn, New York, and Kurt Niedermeier, Niedermeier Design,Seattle, Washington.
ions1Overview: Learning to realize education’s promise41627The three dimensions of the learning crisisHow to realize education’s promise: Three policy responsesLearning to realize education’s promise37Part I: Education’s promise3838384144Chapter 1: Schooling, learning, and the promise of educationEducation as freedomEducation improves individual freedomsEducation benefits all of societyLearning and the promise of education57Part II: The learning crisis5863Chapter 2: The great schooling expansion—and those it has leftbehindMost children have access to basic educationPoverty, gender, ethnicity, disability, and location explain most remaining schoolingdisparitiesFor poor parents, schooling requires trade-offs68Spotlight 1: The biology of learning71717878Chapter 3: The many faces of the learning crisisFor too many, learning isn’t happeningPoor children learn the least, which hurts them the mostWhat is causing the learning crisis?88Spotlight 2: Poverty hinders biological development andundermines learning91919293Chapter 4: To take learning seriously, start by measuring itThe learning crisis is often hidden—but measurement makes it visibleMeasures for learning guide actionMeasures of learning spur action5860v
959596Choose learning metrics based on what the country needsWill learning metrics narrow the vision for education?Six tips for effective learning measurement102Spotlight 3: The multidimensionality of skills107 Part III: Innovations and evidence for learning108Spotlight 4: Learning about learning112Chapter 5: There is no learning without prepared, motivatedlearnersInvesting in their early years prepares children for schoolProviding demand-side support can get kids to school, but not necessarily to learnRemedial education can prepare learners for further education and 156157164Chapter 6: Teacher skills and motivation both matter (though manyeducation systems act like they don’t)Most teacher training is ineffective, but some approaches workHelping teachers teach to the level of the student has proven effectiveTeacher motivation and incentives make a difference, even with few inputsChapter 7: Everything else should strengthen the teacher-learnerinteractionTechnological interventions increase learning—but only if they enhance theteacher-learner relationshipOther inputs bring learners to school—but promote learning only if they targetteaching and learningSchool management and governance are crucial, and involving communitiescan help overcome incentive problems and information failures—but only ifcommunities have capacityChapter 8: Build on foundations by linking skills training to jobsWorkplace training can help young people develop skills, yet few benefit from itShort-term job training offers opportunities, but most programs fail to deliverTVET can prepare young people for work, but early sorting into TVET can limitcareer growthSuccessful job training programs share several featuresSpotlight 5: Technology is changing the world of work: What doesthat mean for learning?169 Part IV: Making the system work for learningat scale170171175Chapter 9: Education systems are misaligned with learningMisalignments and incoherence impede learningTechnical complexities make it hard to align education systems with learning183Spotlight 6: Spending more or spending better—or both?189189190Chapter 10: Unhealthy politics drives misalignmentsUnhealthy politics can intensify misalignments in education systemsMultiple actors and interests: Pulling the system out of alignment at each stepof the policy cycleTrapped in low-accountability, low-learning equilibriums195vi CONTENTS
199199203207211Chapter 11: How to escape low-learning trapsImproving informationBuilding coalitions and strengthening incentivesEncouraging innovation and agilityHow can external actors support initiatives to improve learning?Boxes1.140 Schooling as human capitalformation or as a signaling device?6.5137 Would raising teachers’ salariesincrease their motivation?1.244 Education can’t do it alone6.61.348 Comparing attainment acrosscountries and economies—learningadjusted years of schooling138 One factor undermining teaching:Poor working conditions7.1149 Training better school principals inJamaica9.1172 It’s all about (education) systems2.161Access denied: The effects of fragility,conflict, and violence3.174Those who can’t read by the end ofgrade 2 struggle to catch up9.2174 Aligning all the ingredients foreffective teaching in Shanghai3.275Gender-based differences in learningdepend on the subject9.3176 Can private schooling be aligned tolearning for all?3.382Teachers may perceive low effort asbeing justified10.1191 How do teachers’ unions affectlearning?4.192Good measures of learning illuminateall parts of the education system10.2193 How politics can derail learning inconflict-affected states4.297A global learning metric?5.1116 Early childhood education preparesyoung children for school11.1201 Using information to align incentiveswith learning in Brazil5.2118 Communities can leverage the manyhours spent outside the classroom toboost learning11.2202 Citizen-led assessments have raisedawareness of the learning crisis inSouth Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa5.3120 Providing information on children’sschool performance can help parentsto motivate their children11.3204 Using the legal system to press forchange11.46.1133 The landscape of in-service teachertraining205 Using “labs” to build coalitions forlearning11.56.2133 What works in preservice teachertraining?205 Reformers in Chile negotiatedchanges gradually11.66.3135 Reaching learners in their ownlanguage208 High-performing schools in theWest Bank and Gaza offer somelearning lessons6.4136 Using diagnostic data to deliverbetter learning in Latin America11.7209 Burundi improved education servicesby iterating and adaptingO.47Students often learn little from yearto year, and early learning deficits aremagnified over timeO.58The percentage of primary schoolstudents who pass a minimumproficiency threshold is often lowFiguresO.15Shortfalls in learning start earlyO.26In several countries, the 75thpercentile of PISA test takers performsbelow the 25th percentile of theOECD averageO.37Children from poor households inAfrica typically learn much lessCONTENTS vii
O.69School completion is higher for richerand urban families, but gender gapsare more context-dependent2.360 National income is correlated withthe gap between primary and lowersecondary completion ratesO.710Why learning doesn’t happen: Fourimmediate factors that break down2.461O.811Socioeconomic gaps in cognitiveachievement grow with age—even inpreschool yearsLower-income countries are rapidlyexpanding secondary education at atime when much of their populationhas not yet completed primary school2.562O.911In Africa, teachers are often absentfrom school or from classrooms whileat schoolSchool completion is higher for richerand urban families, but gender gapsare more context-dependent2.663Management capacity is low inschools in low- and middle-incomecountriesMultiple exclusions: Girls from poorhouseholds often have the lowestrates of education attainmentS1.169Synapse development over the first20 years of life3.172Most grade 6 students in West andCentral Africa are not sufficientlycompetent in reading or mathematics3.272Most grade 6 students in southernand East Africa are not sufficientlycompetent in mathematics, andseveral countries score poorly inreading as well73Learning outcomes are substantiallylower for poor children in LatinAmericaO.1012O.1113Technical and political factors divertschools, teachers, and families from afocus on learningO.1217Many countries lack information onlearning outcomesO.1319Low-performing countries don’t facesharp trade-offs between learningand other education outputsO.1421It’s more complicated than it looks:People act in reaction to the choicesof others throughout the system3.3O.1526Coherence and alignment towardlearningB3.2.1 751.139More schooling is systematicallyassociated with higher wages1.240 Mortality rates in the United Statesare lower for adults with moreeducationGirls outperform boys on readingin all countries and economies,but boys typically do better inmathematics and science3.4761.343People with higher education holdstronger beliefs about the importanceof democracyLearning outcomes vary greatlyacross countries and economies—inseveral countries, the 75th percentileof PISA test takers performs below the25th percentile of the OECD average1.445Learning varies widely acrosscountries; in 6 of the 10 countriesassessed, only half or fewer ofprimary completers can read3.577Middle-income countries tend to havelower rates of literacy proficiencythan high-income countries3.677Reading proficiency is low in manyparts of the developing world3.778Family socioeconomic statussignificantly affects students’ averagePISA scores3.879The proximate determinants oflearning3.979Socioeconomic gaps in cognitiveachievement grow with age—even inpreschool years3.1081A lot of official teaching time is lost1.546 What matters for growth is learning1.647Increasing learning would yieldmajor economic benefitsB1.3.1 48 There can be a large gap betweenlearning-adjusted and unadjustedyears of schoolingviii 2.159School enrollments have shot up indeveloping countries2.259Most of the world’s population withless than a primary education is inSouth Asia, but rates are similar inSub-Saharan AfricaCONTENTSB3.3.1 82Teachers’ beliefs about their effortand its effects
3.1182Staff compensation consumes thelargest share of resources availablefor public education6.2137 Prospective engineers typically scorehigher than prospective teachers onPISA tests3.1283Management capacity is low inschools in low- and middle-incomecountries7.1146 Information and communicationtechnology has had a mixed impacton learningS2.189 Severe deprivation affects brainstructure and function from earlyin life7.2148 Schools vary significantly inmanagement quality8.1155 Few benefit from workplace training,and those who do tend to alreadyhave better literacy or education8.2157 Most vocational training studentsenroll during upper secondary schoolS5.1165 Technology use has increaseddramatically over the past decade—but remains low in many countries9.1171 Technical and political barriers pulleducation systems away from thegoal of learning9.2173 Simple associations betweeneducation spending and learningare weakS2.289 Risk and protective factors affectdevelopmental trajectories4.195No internationally comparable dataon learning are available for mostchildren outside of high-incomecountries4.296S3.1103 Cognitive, socioemotional, andtechnical skills interactS4.1108 The number of experimental andquasi-experimental studies ofinterventions to improve learning hasmushroomed in recent decadesS4.2109 It’s more complicated than it looks:People act in reaction to the choicesof others throughout the system5.1114 Investments in high-qualityprograms during children’s earlyyears pay offLow-performing countries don’t facesharp trade-offs between learningand other education outputs5.2115 Intense deprivation can impair braindevelopment5.3117 Integrated programs through theearly years are necessary for properchild development5.45.5S6.1184 Governments devote a large share oftheir budgets to educationS6.2185 The relationship between changesin public education spending andstudent learning is often weak10.1191 Contradictory interests detract fromlearning objectivesB10.1.1 192 Teacher unionization varies acrosscountries10.2118 What happens when school fees areeliminated? Evidence from eightcountries195 Interdependencies characterize therelationship between teachers andpoliticians11.1200 Primary school numeracy hasincreased dramatically in England119 Not all education systems areequally productive, but even the leastproductive deliver some learning tosome learners11.2207 Problem-driven iterative adaptationdrives successful reforms11.3210 Trends in public education spendingin the Philippines track changes inthe broader political and economiccontext11.4212 Most funding for educationcomes from domestic sources, butinternational finance is important forlow-income countries5.6120 Young people follow different pathsin their education5.7121 Workers with higher literacyproficiency are more likely to enterwhite-collar jobs6.1B9.3.1 178 In Bangladesh, there are 11 differentkinds of nonstate providers ofpresecondary education134 Only a small fraction of learnerskeeps up with the curriculumB11.5.1 205 Reading scores have improved inChileCONTENTS ix
MapB6.3.1 135 Linguistic diversity around the worldTablesO.114Alignment and coherence both matterO.214Multiple interests govern the actionsof education stakeholders1.139Examples of education’s benefits1.242More schooling leads to more voting3.15.1x CONTENTSB9.3.1 176 Private providers account for asignificant share of school enrollmentS6.1186 Inequalities in public educationspending are common11.180 Few teachers reach minimumthresholds of performance onknowledge assessments202 Principles for making the most ofinformation and the roles that actorscan play11.2113 Models of human behavior canguide actions to improve learnerpreparation: Some examples203 Principles for building effectivecoalitions and the roles that actorscan play11.3209 Principles for encouraginginnovation at scale and the roles thatactors can play6.1132 Models of human behavior can guideactions to improve teaching: Someexamples7.1146 Models of human behavior can guideactions to improve the effectivenessof school inputs and governance:Some examples
ForewordEducation and learning raise aspirations, set values, and ultimately enrich lives. The country where I was born, the Republic of Korea, is a good example of how education can playthese important roles. After the Korean War, the population was largely illiterate and deeplyimpoverished. The World Bank said that, without constant foreign aid, Korea would find itdifficult to provide its people with more than the bare necessities of life. The World Bankconsidered even the lowest interest rate loans to the country too risky.Korea understood that education was the best way to pull itself out of economic misery,so it focused on overhauling schools and committed itself to educating every child—andeducating them well. Coupled with smart, innovative government policies and a vibrantprivate sector, the focus on education paid off. Today, not only has Korea achieved universalliteracy, but its students also perform at the highest levels in international learning assessments. It’s a high-income country and a model of successful economic development.Korea is a particularly striking example, but we can see the salutary effects of educationin many countries. Delivered well, education—and the human capital it creates—has manybenefits for economies, and for societies as a whole. For individuals, education promotesemployment, earnings, and health. It raises pride and opens new horizons. For societies, itdrives long-term economic growth, reduces poverty, spurs innovation, strengthens institutions, and fosters social cohesion.In short, education powerfully advances the World Bank Group’s twin strategic goals:ending extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity. Given that today’s students will betomorrow’s citizens, leaders, workers, and parents, a good education is an investment withenduring benefits.But providing education is not enough. What is important, and what generates a realreturn on investment, is learning and acquiring skills. This is what truly builds humancapital. As this year’s World Development Report documents, in many countries and communities learning isn’t happening. Schooling without learning is a terrible waste of preciousresources and of human potential.Worse, it is an injustice. Without learning, students will be locked into lives of povertyand exclusion, and the children whom societies fail the most are those most in need ofa good education to succeed in life. Learning conditions are almost always much worsefor the disadvantaged, and so are learning outcomes. Moreover, far too many children stillaren’t even attending school. This is a moral and economic crisis that must be addressedimmediately.This year’s Report provides a path to address this economic and moral failure. Thedetailed analysis in this Report shows that these problems are driven not only by servicedelivery failings in schools but also by deeper systemic problems. The human capital lostxi
because of these shortcomings threatens development and jeopardizes the future of people and their societies. At the same time, rapid technological change raises the stakes: tocompete in the economy of the future, workers need strong basic skills and foundations foradaptability, creativity, and lifelong learning.To realize education’s promise, we need to prioritize learning, not just schooling. ThisReport argues that achieving learning for all will require three complementary strategies: First, assess learning to make it a serious goal. Information itself creates incentivesfor reform, but many countries lack the right metrics to measure learning. Second, act on evidence to make schools work for learning. Great schools buildstrong teacher-learner relationships in classrooms. As brain science has advancedand educators have innovated, the knowledge of how students learn mosteffectively has greatly expanded. But the way many countries, communities,and schools approach education often differs greatly from the most promising,evidence-based approaches. Third, align actors to make the entire system work for learning. Innovation inclassrooms won’t have much impact if technical and political barriers at the system level prevent a focus on learning at the school level. This is the case in manycountries stuck in low-learning traps; extricating them requires focused attentionon the deeper causes.The World Bank Group is already incorporating the key findings of this Report into ouroperations. We will continue to seek new ways to scale up our commitment to educationand apply our knowledge to serve those children whose untapped potential is wasted. Forexample, we are developing more useful measures of learning and its determinants. Weare ensuring that evidence guides operational practice to improve learning in areas such asearly-years interventions, teacher training, and educational technology. We are makingsure that our project analysis and strategic country diagnoses take into account the fullrange of system-level opportunities and limitations—including political constraints. Andwe will continue to emphasize operational approaches that allow greater innovation andagility.Underlying these efforts is the World Bank Group’s commitment to ensuring that all ofthe world’s students have the opportunity to learn. Realizing education’s promise meansgiving them the chance not only to compete in tomorrow’s economy, but also to improvetheir communities, build stronger countries, and move closer to a world that is finally freeof poverty.Jim Yong KimPresidentThe World Bank Groupxii FOREWORD
AcknowledgmentsThis year’s World Development Report (WDR) was prepared by a team led by Deon Filmerand Halsey Rogers. The core team was composed of Samer Al-Samarrai, Magdalena Bendini, Tara Béteille, David Evans, Märt Kivine, Shwetlena Sabarwal, and Alexandria Valerio,together with research analysts Malek Abu-Jawdeh, Bradley Larson, Unika Shrestha, and FeiYuan. Rafael de Hoyos and Sophie Naudeau were members of the extended team. StephenCommins provided consultations support. Mary Breeding, Ji Liu, Christian Ponce de León,Carla Cristina Solis Uehara, Alies Van Geldermalsen, and Paula Villaseñor served as consultants. The production and logistics team for the Report consisted of Brónagh Murphy andJason Victor.The Report is sponsored by the Development Economics Vice Presidency. Overall guidance for preparation of the Report was provided by Paul Romer, Senior Vice President andChief Economist, and Ana Revenga, Deputy Chief Economist. In the early months of theReport’s preparation, guidance was provided by Kaushik Basu, former Senior Vice Presidentand Chief Economist, and Indermit Gill, former Director for Development Policy. The teamis also grateful for comments and guidance from Shantayanan Devarajan, Senior Directorfor Development Economics. The Education Global Practice and the Human DevelopmentGlobal Practice Group provided consistent support to the Report team. The team is especially grateful for support and guidance provided by Jaime Saavedra, Senior Director, andLuis Benveniste, Director, of the Education Global Practice.The team received guidance from an advisory panel composed of Gordon Brown (who,together with the Chief Economist, cochaired the panel), Michelle Bachelet, RukminiBanerji, Julia Gillard, Eric Hanushek, Olli-Pekka Heinonen, Ju-Ho Lee, and Serigne MbayeThiam. Although the team valued their advice and found it very useful, the views expressedin the Report do not necessarily reflect those of the panel members.The team also benefited at an early stage from consultations on emerging themes withthe Chief Economist’s Council of Eminent Persons. Council members providing commentswere Montek Singh Ahluwalia, François Bourguignon, Heba Handoussa, Justin Yifu Lin,Ory Okolloh, Pepi Patrón, Amartya Sen, Joseph Stiglitz, Finn Tarp, and Maria HermíniaTavares de Almeida.Paul Holtz was the principal editor of the Report. Bruce Ross-Larson provided editorialguidance, and Sabra Ledent and Gwenda Larsen copyedited and proofread the Report. KurtNiedermeier was the principal graphic designer. Alejandra Bustamante and Surekha Mohanprovided resource management support for the team. Phillip Hay, Mikael Reventar, AnushkaThewarapperuma, and Roula Yazigi, together with Patricia da Camara and Kavita Watsa,provided guidance and support on communication and dissemination. Special thanks areextended to Mary Fisk, Patricia Katayama, Stephen Pazdan, and the World Bank’s FormalPublishing Program. The team would also like to thank Maria Alyanak, Laverne Cook, Mariadel Camino Hurtado, Chorching Goh, Vivian Hon, Elena Chi-Lin Lee, Nancy Tee Lim, DavidRosenblatt, and Bintao Wang for their coordinating roles.xiii
The team is grateful for generous support for preparation of the Report provided by theKnowledge for Change Program (KCP, a multidonor Trust Fund) and especially from thegovernments and development agencies of the following KCP donor countries: Finland,France, and Norway. Background and related research, along with dissemination, are beinggenerously supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Early Learning PartnershipTrust Fund, LEGO Foundation, and Nordic Trust Fund.Consultation events attended by government officials, researchers, and civil societyorganizations were held in Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, China, Côte d’Ivoire, Finland, France,Germany, India, Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Malaysia, Mexico, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania,Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States, with participants drawn frommany more countries. The team thanks those who took part in these events for their helpfulcomments and suggestions. Further information on these events is available at http://www.worldbank.org/wdr2018.Interagency consultations were held with the Association for the Development ofEducation in Africa (ADEA), Global Development Network (GDN), Global Partnership forEducation (GPE), International Commission on Financing Global Education Opportunity(Education Commission), International Monetary Fund (IMF), Organisation for EconomicCo-operation and Development (OECD), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), andUnited Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Consultations with bilateral development partners included representatives of the governmentsof Canada, Finland, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Norway, and Sweden, and of Australia’sDepartment of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT), the French Development Agency (AFD),German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ GmbH), German Federal Ministry forEconomic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), Japan International Cooperation Agency(JICA), U.K. Department for International Development (DFID), and U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). The team also held consultations with the advisory board ofKCP. The team is grateful to all those who took part in these events.Civil society organizations (CSOs) represented at consultations included, among others,ActionAid, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Education International, Global Campaign forEducation, LEGO Foundation, MasterCard Foundation, ONE Campaign, Oxfam, Save theChildren, Teach for All, and World Vision. In addition, a diverse group of CSOs participatedin a CSO Forum session held during the 2017 World Bank/IMF Spring Meetings and in ane-forum held in March 2017. The team is grateful to these CSOs for their input and usefulengagement.Researchers and academics provided helpful feedback at WDR-oriented sessions at the2016 Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE) Conference at Oxford University, 2017 meetings of the Allied Social Sciences Associations (ASSA), 2017 meetings of theSociety for Research on Education Effectiveness (SREE), 2017 Mexico Conference on Political Economy of Education, and 2017 meeting of the Systems Approach for Better EducationResults (SABER) Advisory Panel. In addition, events dedicated to the WDR were organizedby the Aga Khan Foundation and Global Affairs Canada in Ottawa; Brookings Center forUniversal Education in Washington, DC; Columbia School of International and PublicAffairs and Cornell University in New York; Development Policy Forum of GIZ GmbH,on behalf of BMZ, in Berlin; JICA in Tokyo; Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny in Abidjan;and USAID in Washington, DC.This Report draws on background papers prepared by Violeta Arancibia, Felipe BarreraOsorio, Tessa Bold, Pierre de Galbert, Louise Fox, Dileni Gunewardena, James Habyarimana,Michael Handel, Anuradha Joshi, Kanishka Kacker, Michelle Kaffenberger, Upaasna Kaul,Elizabeth M. King, Gayle Martin, Eema Masood, Ezequiel Molina, Sebastián MonroyTaborda, Kate Moriarty, Anna Popova, Lant Pritchett, Christophe Rockmore, Andrew Rosser,María Laura Sánchez Puerta, Priyam Saraf, M. Najeeb Shafiq, Brian Stacy, Jakob Svensson,Namrata Tognatta, Robert Toutkoush
Cover design: Kurt Niedermeier, Niedermeier Design, Seattle, Washington. Interior design: George Kokkinidis, Design Language, Brooklyn, New York, and Kurt Niedermeier, Niedermeier Design, Seattle, Washington. v xi Foreword . but most programs fail to deliver 156 TVET can prepare young people for work, but early sorting into TVET can limit
