Modern Antenna Design - Radio Astronomy

Transcription

MODERN ANTENNA DESIGNSecond EditionTHOMAS A. MILLIGANIEEE PRESSA JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

MODERN ANTENNA DESIGN

MODERN ANTENNA DESIGNSecond EditionTHOMAS A. MILLIGANIEEE PRESSA JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Copyright 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form orby any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except aspermitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the priorwritten permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee tothe Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax978-646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should beaddressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030,(201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008.Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts inpreparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy orcompleteness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties ofmerchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by salesrepresentatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitablefor your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher norauthor shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited tospecial, incidental, consequential, or other damages.For general information on our other products and services please contact our Customer Care Departmentwithin the U.S. at 877-762-2974, outside the U.S. at 317-572-3993 or fax 317-572-4002.Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print,however, may not be available in electronic format.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:Milligan, Thomas A.Modern antenna design / by Thomas A. Milligan.—2nd ed.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN-13 978-0-471-45776-3 (cloth)ISBN-10 0-471-45776-0 (cloth)1. Antennas (Electronics)–Design and construction. I. Title.TK7871.6.M54 2005621.382 4—dc22Printed in the United States of America.10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 12004059098

To Mary, Jane, and Margaret

CONTENTSPreface1 Properties of Antennasxv11-11-21-31-41-51-61-71-8Antenna Radiation, 2Gain, 3Effective Area, 6Path Loss, 6Radar Range Equation and Cross Section, 7Why Use an Antenna? 9Directivity, 10Directivity Estimates, 111-8.1 Pencil Beam, 111-8.2 Butterfly or Omnidirectional Pattern, 131-9 Beam Efficiency, 161-10 Input-Impedance Mismatch Loss, 171-11 Polarization, 181-11.1 Circular Polarization Components, 191-11.2 Huygens Source Polarization, 211-11.3 Relations Between Bases, 221-11.4 Antenna Polarization Response, 231-11.5 Phase Response of Rotating Antennas, 251-11.6 Partial Gain, 261-11.7 Measurement of Circular Polarization UsingAmplitude Only, 261-12 Vector Effective Height, 271-13 Antenna Factor, 291-14 Mutual Coupling Between Antennas, 291.15 Antenna Noise Temperature, 30vii

viiiCONTENTS1-16 Communication Link Budget and Radar Range, 351-17 Multipath, 361-18 Propagation Over Soil, 371-19 Multipath Fading, 39References, 402 Radiation Structures and Numerical Methods2-1 Auxiliary Vector Potentials, 432-1.1 Radiation from Electric Currents, 442-1.2 Radiation from Magnetic Currents, 492-2 Apertures: Huygens Source Approximation, 512-2.1 Near- and Far-Field Regions, 552-2.2 Huygens Source, 572-3 Boundary Conditions, 572-4 Physical Optics, 592-4.1 Radiated Fields Given Currents, 592-4.2 Applying Physical Optics, 602-4.3 Equivalent Currents, 652-4.4 Reactance Theorem and Mutual Coupling, 662-5 Method of Moments, 672-5.1 Use of the Reactance Theorem for the Method ofMoments, 682-5.2 General Moments Method Approach, 692-5.3 Thin-Wire Moment Method Codes, 712-5.4 Surface and Volume Moment Method Codes, 712-5.5 Examples of Moment Method Models, 722-6 Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method, 762-6.1 Implementation, 762-6.2 Central Difference Derivative, 772-6.3 Finite-Difference Maxwell’s Equations, 772-6.4 Time Step for Stability, 792-6.5 Numerical Dispersion and Stability, 802-6.6 Computer Storage and Execution Times, 802-6.7 Excitation, 812-6.8 Waveguide Horn Example, 832-7 Ray Optics and the Geometric Theory of Diffraction, 842-7.1 Fermat’s Principle, 852-7.2 H -Plane Pattern of a Dipole Located Over a FiniteStrip, 852-7.3 E-Plane Pattern of a Rectangular Horn, 872-7.4 H -Plane Pattern of a Rectangular Horn, 892-7.5 Amplitude Variations Along a Ray, 902-7.6 Extra Phase Shift Through Caustics, 932-7.7 Snell’s Laws and Reflection, 932-7.8 Polarization Effects in Reflections, 942-7.9 Reflection from a Curved Surface, 942-7.10 Ray Tracing, 9642

CONTENTS2-7.112-7.122-7.132-7.142-7.15References, 100ixEdge Diffraction, 96Slope Diffraction, 98Corner Diffraction, 99Equivalent Currents, 99Diffraction from Curved Surfaces, 993 Arrays1023-1 Two-Element Array, 1043-2 Linear Array of N Elements, 1093-3 Hansen and Woodyard End-Fire Array, 1143-4 Phased Arrays, 1153-5 Grating Lobes, 1173-6 Multiple Beams, 1183-7 Planar Array, 1203-8 Grating Lobes in Planar Arrays, 1253-9 Mutual Impedance, 1273-10 Scan Blindness and Array Element Pattern, 1273-11 Compensating Array Feeding for Mutual Coupling, 1283-12 Array Gain, 1293-13 Arrays Using Arbitrarily Oriented Elements, 133References, 1354 Aperture Distributions and Array Synthesis4-1 Amplitude Taper and Phase Error Efficiencies, 1374-1.1 Separable Rectangular Aperture Distributions, 1394-1.2 Circularly Symmetrical Distributions, 1404-2 Simple Linear Distributions, 1404-3 Taylor One-Parameter Linear Distribution, 1444-4 Taylor n Line Distribution, 1474-5 Taylor Line Distribution with Edge Nulls, 1524-6 Elliott’s Method for Modified Taylor Distribution andArbitrary Sidelobes, 1554-7 Bayliss Line-Source Distribution, 1584-8 Woodward Line-Source Synthesis, 1624-9 Schelkunoff’s Unit-Circle Method, 1644-10 Dolph–Chebyshev Linear Array, 1704-11 Villeneuve Array Synthesis, 1724-12 Zero Sampling of Continuous Distributions, 1734-13 Fourier Series Shaped-Beam Array Synthesis, 1754-14 Orchard Method of Array Synthesis, 1784-15 Series-Fed Array and Traveling-Wave Feed Synthesis, 1884-16 Circular Apertures, 1914-17 Circular Gaussian Distribution, 1944-18 Hansen Single-Parameter Circular Distribution, 1954-19 Taylor Circular-Aperture Distribution, 1964-20 Bayliss Circular-Aperture Distribution, 200136

xCONTENTS4-214-224-234-244-25Planar Arrays, 202Convolution Technique for Planar Arrays, 203Aperture Blockage, 208Quadratic Phase Error, 211Beam Efficiency of Circular Apertures with AxisymmetricDistribution, 214References, 2155 Dipoles, Slots, and Standing-Wave Currents, 218Radiation Resistance (Conductance), 220Babinet–Booker Principle, 222Dipoles Located Over a Ground Plane, 223Dipole Mounted Over Finite Ground Planes, 225Crossed Dipoles for Circular Polarization, 231Super Turnstile or Batwing Antenna, 234Corner Reflector, 237Monopole, 242Sleeve Antenna, 242Cavity-Mounted Dipole Antenna, 245Folded Dipole, 247Shunt Feeding, 248Discone Antenna, 249Baluns, 2515-15.1 Folded Balun, 2525-15.2 Sleeve or Bazooka Baluns, 2535-15.3 Split Coax Balun, 2555-15.4 Half-Wavelength Balun, 2565-15.5 Candelabra Balun, 2565-15.6 Ferrite Core Baluns, 2565-15.7 Ferrite Candelabra Balun, 2585-15.8 Transformer Balun, 2585-15.9 Split Tapered Coax Balun, 2595-15.10 Natural Balun, 260Small Loop, 260Alford Loop, 261Resonant Loop, 263Quadrifilar Helix, 264Cavity-Backed Slots, 266Stripline Series Slots, 266Shallow-Cavity Crossed-Slot Antenna, 269Waveguide-Fed Slots, 270Rectangular-Waveguide Wall Slots, 271Circular-Waveguide Slots, 276Waveguide Slot Arrays, 2785-26.1 Nonresonant Array, 2795-26.2 Resonant Array, 282217

CONTENTSxi5-26.3 Improved Design Methods, 282References, 2836 Microstrip Antennas2856-1 Microstrip Antenna Patterns, 2876-2 Microstrip Patch Bandwidth and Surface-WaveEfficiency, 2936-3 Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna, 2996-4 Quarter-Wave Patch Antenna, 3106-5 Circular Microstrip Patch, 3136-6 Circularly Polarized Patch Antennas, 3166-7 Compact Patches, 3196-8 Directly Fed Stacked Patches, 3236-9 Aperture-Coupled Stacked Patches, 3256-10 Patch Antenna Feed Networks, 3276-11 Series-Fed Array, 3296-12 Microstrip Dipole, 3306-13 Microstrip Franklin Array, 3326-14 Microstrip Antenna Mechanical Properties, 333References, 3347 Horn Antennas3367-1 Rectangular Horn (Pyramidal), 3377-1.1 Beamwidth, 3417-1.2 Optimum Rectangular Horn, 3437-1.3 Designing to Given Beamwidths, 3467-1.4 Phase Center, 3477-2 Circular-Aperture Horn, 3487-2.1 Beamwidth, 3507-2.2 Phase Center, 3527-3 Circular (Conical) Corrugated Horn, 3537-3.1 Scalar Horn, 3577-3.2 Corrugation Design, 3577-3.3 Choke Horns, 3587-3.4 Rectangular Corrugated Horns, 3597-4 Corrugated Ground Plane, 3597-5 Gaussian Beam, 3627-6 Ridged Waveguide Horns, 3657-7 Box Horn, 3727-8 T-Bar-Fed Slot Antenna, 3747-9 Multimode Circular Horn, 3767-10 Biconical Horn, 376References, 3788 Reflector Antennas8-1 Paraboloidal Reflector Geometry, 3818-2 Paraboloidal Reflector Aperture Distribution Losses, 383380

proximate Spillover and Amplitude Taper Trade-offs, 385Phase Error Losses and Axial Defocusing, 387Astigmatism, 389Feed Scanning, 390Random Phase Errors, 393Focal Plane Fields, 396Feed Mismatch Due to the Reflector, 397Front-to-Back Ratio, 399Offset-Fed Reflector, 399Reflections from Conic Sections, 405Dual-Reflector Antennas, 4088-13.1 Feed Blockage, 4108-13.2 Diffraction Loss, 4138-13.3 Cassegrain Tolerances, 4148-14 Feed and Subreflector Support Strut Radiation, 4168-15 Gain/Noise Temperature of a Dual Reflector, 4218-16 Displaced-Axis Dual Reflector, 4218-17 Offset-Fed Dual Reflector, 4248-18 Horn Reflector and Dragonian Dual Reflector, 4278-19 Spherical Reflector, 4298-20 Shaped Reflectors, 4328-20.1 Cylindrical Reflector Synthesis, 4338-20.2 Circularly Symmetrical Reflector Synthesis, 4348-20.3 Doubly Curved Reflector for Shaped Beams, 4378-20.4 Dual Shaped Reflectors, 4398-21 Optimization Synthesis of Shaped andMultiple-Beam Reflectors, 442References, 4439 Lens Antennas4479-19-29-39-49-59-69-79-8Single Refracting Surface Lenses, 448Zoned Lenses, 451General Two-Surface Lenses, 454Single-Surface or Contact Lenses, 459Metal Plate Lenses, 461Surface Mismatch and Dielectric Losses, 463Feed Scanning of a Hyperboloidal Lens, 464Dual-Surface Lenses, 4659-8.1 Coma-Free Axisymmetric Dielectric Lens, 4669-8.2 Specified Aperture Distribution AxisymmetricDielectric Lens, 4689-9 Bootlace Lens, 4709-10 Luneburg Lens, 472References, 47210Traveling-Wave Antennas10-1 General Traveling Waves, 475474

CONTENTSxiii10-1.1 Slow Wave, 47810-1.2 Fast Waves (Leaky Wave Structure), 48010-2 Long Wire Antennas, 48110-2.1 Beverage Antenna, 48110-2.2 V Antenna, 48210-2.3 Rhombic Antenna, 48310-3 Yagi–Uda Antennas, 48510-3.1 Multiple-Feed Yagi–Uda Antennas, 49210-3.2 Resonant Loop Yagi–Uda Antennas, 49510-4 Corrugated Rod (Cigar) Antenna, 49710-5 Dielectric Rod (Polyrod) Antenna, 49910-6 Helical Wire Antenna, 50210-6.1 Helical Modes, 50310-6.2 Axial Mode, 50410-6.3 Feed of a Helical Antenna, 50610-6.4 Long Helical Antenna, 50710-6.5 Short Helical Antenna, 50810-7 Short Backfire Antenna, 50910-8 Tapered Slot Antennas, 51210-9 Leaky Wave Structures, 516References, 51811 Frequency-Independent AntennasSpiral11-111-211-311-411-5Antennas, 522Modal Expansion of Antenna Patterns, 524Archimedean Spiral, 526Equiangular Spiral, 527Pattern Analysis of Spiral Antennas, 530Spiral Construction and Feeding, 53511-5.1 Spiral Construction, 53511-5.2 Balun Feed, 53611-5.3 Infinite Balun, 53811-5.4 Beamformer and Coaxial Line Feed, 53811-6 Spiral and Beamformer Measurements, 53811-7 Feed Network and Antenna Interaction, 54011-8 Modulated Arm Width Spiral, 54111-9 Conical Log Spiral Antenna, 54311-10 Mode 2 Conical Log Spiral Antenna, 54911-11 Feeding Conical Log Spirals, 550Log-Periodic Antennas, 55011-12 Log-Periodic Dipole Antenna, 55111-12.1 Feeding a Log-Periodic Dipole Antenna, 55611-12.2 Phase Center, 55811-12.3 Elevation Angle, 55911-12.4 Arrays of Log-Periodic Dipole Antennas, 56011-13 Other Log-Periodic Types, 56111-14 Log-Periodic Antenna Feeding Paraboloidal Reflector, 563521

xivCONTENTS11-15 V Log-Periodic Array, 56711-16 Cavity-Backed Planar Log-Periodic Antennas, 569References, 57112Phased Arrays57312-112-212-312-4Fixed Phase Shifters (Phasers), 574Quantization Lobes, 578Array Errors, 580Nonuniform and Random Element Existence Arrays, 58212-4.1 Linear Space Tapered Array, 58212-4.2 Circular Space Tapered Array, 58412-4.3 Statistically Thinned Array, 58712-5 Array Element Pattern, 58812-6 Feed Networks, 59012-6.1 Corporate Feed, 59012-6.2 Series Feed, 59212-6.3 Variable Power Divider and Phase Shifter, 59212-6.4 Butler Matrix, 59412-6.5 Space Feeding, 59612-6.6 Tapered Feed Network with Uniform-AmplitudeSubarrays, 59712-7 Pattern Null Formation in Arbitrary Array, 59912-8 Phased Array Application to Communication Systems, 60112-9 Near-Field Measurements on Phased Arrays, 602References, 604Index607

PREFACEI wrote this book from my perspective as a designer in industry, primarily for otherdesigners and users of antennas. On occasion I have prepared and taught antennacourses, for which I developed a systematic approach to the subject. For the lastdecade I have edited the “Antenna Designer’s Notebook” column in the IEEE antennamagazine. This expanded edi

4-6 Elliott s Method for Modi ed Taylor Distribution and Arbitrary Sidelobes, 155 4-7 Bayliss Line-Source Distribution, 158 4-8 Woodward Line-Source Synthesis, 162 4-9 Schelkunoff s Unit-Circle Method, 164 4-10 Dolph Chebyshev Linear Array, 170 4-11 Villeneuve Array Synthesis, 172 4-12 Zero Sampling of Continuous Distributions, 173 4-13 Fourier Series Shaped-Beam Array Synthesis, 175 4-14 .